Chapter One: Legend and Reality

At this point, it is essential to discuss the origins of the Japanese people

When Empress Jingong returned from the Korean Peninsula, King Shinbears and King Kōsaka instigated a rebellion, which was quelled by Naniwa Negoko and Kenen no Sukune. Some scholars believe that this was not actually a civil war, but rather a conflict among states on the Japanese archipelago. At that time, the Yamato dynasty had not yet unified Japan, and neither King Shinbears nor King Kōsaka, nor even Kenen no Sukune, were vassals of Yamato, but rather rulers of other countries

According to legend, Emperor Jingu passed down to Emperor Seimu, followed by Emperor Chuai, Emperor Ojin, and Emperor Nintoku. After them came the emperors of Rihon, Hanzheng, Yungong, Anko, and Yoryaku. Emperor Yoryaku is likely the "King of Wa, Bu" mentioned in Chinese historical texts. He once submitted a memorial to Emperor Shun of the Southern Dynasty of Song, which included the phrase, "Since ancient times, my ancestors have donned armor and traversed mountains and rivers, never resting, eastward conquering the 55 nations of the Maoren and westward subjugating the 66 nations of the barbarians, crossing the sea to conquer 95 nations to the north." This indicates that his ancestors indeed underwent a long period of conquest and warfare, essentially unifying the Japanese archipelago. However, did this conquest begin with Emperor Jingu, who reigned eight or nine generations prior? When was this basic unification actually completed? Currently, there is no evidence to substantiate the so-called tales of the conquests of "Yamato Takemikazuchi."

In fact, the title of the Emperor of Japan originated relatively late. Ancient Japanese monarchs were mostly referred to as "Ōkimi" (大王), and it was not until after the 7th century that posthumous titles were conferred upon these ancient kings, changing their designation to "Emperor So-and-So." Chinese historical records document five such kings, named Zan, Zhen, Ji, Xing, and Wu. Japanese scholars believe that they may correspond to the legendary Emperors Jindō, Hanzheng, Yungong, Ankang, and Xionglue. The period of the Five Kings of Wa is generally considered to be from 413 to 500 AD, during the Eastern Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties in China.

The Mythological System of Izumo

Many customs and living habits from the Jomon period are also reflected in Japanese mythology. Let us turn our attention back to the "Nihon Shoki" and "Kojiki." The texts state that Izanagi and Izanami, the brother and sister, danced around the Heavenly Pillar. Izanami sang first, and Izanagi responded, thus the two deities became husband and wife. They first gave birth to a leech child and then to Awashima, both of whom were deformed. The deities went to consult the other gods, who replied, "It is inauspicious for the woman to speak first; you must start over." Therefore, they returned home and held another "wedding," with Izanagi singing first and Izanami responding. This time was extraordinary, and they gave birth in one go to Awaji, Iyo, Oki, Tsukushi, Ikki, Tsu, Sado, and Yamato Toyokitsune, the eight islands—thus the Japanese archipelago was born.

Izanagi immersed himself in the sea to cleanse himself. He first removed his clothing and ornaments, casting them into the water, from which emerged the deities such as the boatman of the waves and the long-breasted deity of the way. Subsequently, he submerged himself and gave birth to the eighty deities of calamity, the great deity of calamity, and the deity of divine truth. During this process, he washed his left eye, which produced Amaterasu, the great deity of the sun; he washed his right eye, which produced Tsukuyomi, the deity of the moon; and he washed his nose, which produced Susanoo, the deity of swift valor. He regarded these three as his most esteemed children and decided to entrust the world to them, allowing himself to retreat in peace.

Susanoo, unwilling to give up, ascended to the heavens to consult with his elder sister. Upon hearing the news, Amaterasu was greatly alarmed, believing her brother intended to seize her throne, and hurriedly prepared to confront him with weapons. Susanoo assured her that he harbored no ill intentions and was willing to take an oath. Thus, the siblings swore an oath across the Amanogawa River. Amaterasu first broke Susanoo's ten-grip sword, Kusanagi, into three pieces, washed them in the heavenly well, and then tightly held them. From her breath emerged the three goddesses, Takeminakata, Takeminakata, and others. Subsequently, Susanoo removed the jeweled ornaments from various parts of Amaterasu's body and performed the same act, resulting in the birth of the five male deities, including Masakatsu, Katsu, and Amanohiboko.

On one hand, sibling marriage was a common practice among humans during the Paleolithic era, and the Japanese imperial family has long adopted this practice to ensure the purity of their bloodline. On the other hand, a significant number of the ancestors of the Japanese people originated from the East Asian continent; might they have directly inherited or absorbed ancient Chinese myths and legends, reinterpreting them for their own use?

Apart from the few indigenous people who existed on the Japanese archipelago before the Paleolithic era, it is possible that a large number of immigrants mixed in from the four directions of northeast, southwest, northwest, and south. The source from the northeast is the ancestors of the present-day Ainu people; the source from the northwest is northern China and the Korean Peninsula; the source from the southwest is southern China; and the source from the south is Malaya and Indonesia

According to the accounts of the envoys, including Nansheng Mi and others, the situation in the land of the Japanese is characterized by the presence of numerous small states (over thirty countries connected to China), among which the largest is called Yamatai. Originally, Yamatai was ruled by a male king, but after his death, the country fell into chaos. Eventually, the powerful clans collectively elected a shamaness to serve as the king, who is Queen Himiko. It is said that in Yamatai, there is a clear hierarchy, with people divided into four classes: "nobles," "commoners," "free individuals," and "slaves." Additionally, there are official positions, markets, taxes, and punishments, indicating a complete form of a slave society.

The period corresponding to the early to mid-Jomon era saw the emergence of the myth of Emperor Jinmu's eastern expedition. This emperor, named Jinmu Iwarebiko no Mikoto, along with his brother, Prince Itsuse, decided to expand towards the east. They first headed north, crossing the sea from northern Kyushu to the Aki region. After staying there for a while, they continued their journey by boat, receiving assistance from the inhabitants of the Kibi region, and sailed towards central Honshu. In the conflict with the ruler of the Settsu region, Tominonagakusu no Mikoto, Prince Itsuse was struck by an arrow and died. Jinmu Iwarebiko no Mikoto was forced to retreat southward, taking a detour, and with the help of Takakurashita in Kumano, he finally landed in Kii and entered the inland region

This legend may perhaps signify the transition of the marriage system from a female-centric to a male-centric model. In any case, the couple continuously bore children, giving rise to Ōyashima, followed by the birth of six smaller islands, including Kodama, and thirty-five deities such as mountains, seas, and winds. Thus, the elements of heaven and earth, wind, thunder, and vegetation were nearly complete. However, when Izanami gave birth to the fire deity Kagu-tsuchi, she was burned by this infant, resulting in her death. In his grief and anger, Izanagi swung his sword and severed Kagu-tsuchi's head. Yet, from the corpse of Kagu-tsuchi and the blood that stained Izanagi's sword, a multitude of deities emerged.

From the latter half of the 5th century, the colonial power of the Yamato dynasty on the Korean Peninsula rapidly declined. In 475, Goguryeo captured the capital of Baekje, Hanseong, prompting the Baekje kingdom to relocate its capital to Gongju. In 512, Baekje requested the cession of four counties, to which the Yamato dynasty was compelled to agree. In 562, the Jinhan Japanese Province was destroyed by Silla. Against this backdrop, Japanese history underwent a transformative period marked by the "Taika Reform" and the "Battle of Baekgang".

Where exactly was the Yamatai Kingdom located in ancient Japan? Currently, there are two prevailing opinions in the academic community. One suggests that it was in northern Kyushu, as this area had the earliest cultural development and provided the most convenient means of communication with the continental regions. The other opinion posits that it was in the Kinki region, as the Yamato dynasty, which ultimately unified Japan, originated from this area.

The First Invasion of the Korean Peninsula

The glorious period of the Izumo mythology comes to an end here, making way for the mythology of the Yamato lineage, namely, the sun goddess Amaterasu and her descendants. It is unclear how it came to be, but Amaterasu suddenly coveted the lands below. She said to her son, Takemikazuchi no Mikoto (one of the sons born from the ten-grip sword during the oath at the Heavenly River), "The fertile reeds of the land of China should be ruled by you." Thus, she dispatched various deities to descend to the mortal realm to negotiate with Okuninushi. Of course, Okuninushi would not agree, and several delegations sent were lost without a trace. In the end, Amaterasu sent down Takemikazuchi and the Heavenly Bird Ship.

The term "Jomon" derives from the various patterns made by hemp ropes on pottery. Of course, not all pottery from the Jomon period featured designs, nor did every piece have rope patterns; it is merely a representative name. At that time, the Japanese primarily used stone tools, and their main sources of livelihood were gathering, hunting, and fishing, although they had already acquired early knowledge of rice cultivation (which likely originated from China). The society then was still organized around kinship-based clans, with women holding a dominant position in marital relationships, and the practice of group marriage had emerged (where men had multiple wives, one of whom was the primary wife, and women could also have multiple husbands, one of whom was the primary husband). People did not yet possess a concept of an afterlife; the dead were buried in a crouched position and large stones were placed on top to prevent them from rising and causing harm—this tradition has been widely passed down in Japan for a long time, distinctly different from the reverence for ancestors seen in Chinese culture.

The Mystery of the Three Sacred Artifacts

Subsequently, Susanoo settled in the land of Izumo (now the western part of Honshu, Japan) and constructed the Suga Palace. He married two wives, Kushi-nada-hime and Kami-o-ichi-hime, and had a large number of children. It is worth mentioning that "hime" or "bi-mei," as written in Chinese in the "Chronicles of Japan," refers to women, and those with this suffix in their names are indicative of women of relatively high status.

In the year 107, the king of Wa sent a tribute of one hundred and sixty "living mouths" (i.e., slaves) to Emperor Han An. As for whether this Wa kingdom was the same as the previous slave kingdom, no one knows. In the years 238 or 239, the land of Wa had a queen named Himiko who sent envoys to pay homage to Emperor Wei Ming. Emperor Wei Ming conferred the title of "亲魏倭王" (King of Wa, Close to Wei) upon Himiko.

However, the Kusanagi Sword, the Yata Mirror, and the Yasakani no Magatama, which have been passed down since ancient times (if indeed there are genuine artifacts), along with numerous forgeries created throughout various eras, have long been lost due to wars, natural disasters, migrations, and theft. What remains today, and is solemnly used in the Emperor's enthronement ceremonies, is merely a replica of a replica based on imitations.

After completing his mission, Takeminakata returned to the heavenly realm to report his achievements. However, the deity Amenohiboko, who was favored by the sun, refused to descend to the mortal world. Instead, he recommended his second son, Taira no Kishi, to take on the task. Thus, this son of the deity with a lengthy name arrived in the southern region of Kyushu, in the area of Chikuzen, and established a nation on Mount Takachiho. However, he was only referred to as "Tenson" or "the Divine Child of Heaven," and was not yet the first emperor.

Approximately between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago, Japan entered the Neolithic Age, and the corresponding culture is referred to as "Jomon Culture." Subsequently, the mixed blood from the northeast, southwest, and south gradually diminished, while the influx of immigrants from the northwest, namely from northern China and the Korean Peninsula, continued unabated. Thus, following the "Jomon Culture," the "Yayoi Culture" and the "Kofun Culture" were established.

Kaminari no Kami is a mighty warrior, and among the most renowned sons of Okuninushi. Yae Koto no Kami dared not confront him and thus conceded defeat. Kaminomikoto engaged in a battle, suffering a significant defeat and fleeing to Suwa in the central-eastern part of Japan, narrowly escaping death, and had no choice but to agree to Kaminari no Kami's demands. Consequently, Okuninushi proposed a condition, requesting the heavenly deities to construct a magnificent palace for him in Izumo, where he could be worshipped eternally, and then he gracefully retreated from public life.

As mentioned above, ancient Japan was characterized by the presence of numerous states, and its mythology was intricate and diverse. The term "eight million deities" was coined later for political purposes to unify the various local gods worshipped by regional clans, resulting in a rather formidable concept. Essentially, the three major focal points of Japanese culture during the Yayoi period and the subsequent Kofun period, which are also the three main sources of mythology, are Kyushu, the Kinai region, and Izumo (recent discoveries suggest a cultural connection between Izumo and the Kibi culture). Undoubtedly, the myths of Susanoo and his successor Okuninushi belong to the Izumo tradition, while the myths of Amaterasu originate from the Yamato tradition—whether the Yamato tradition is associated with Kyushu or the Kinai region, much like the origins of the Yamato dynasty, remains a topic of ongoing debate among historians.

Ōkuninushi was thus forced to flee and eventually encountered Susanoo's daughter, Suseri-hime. The two fell in love and became husband and wife. However, Susanoo seemed greatly dissatisfied with this marriage, referring to Ōkuninushi as "the excrement man of the Ashihara no Nakatsukuni." He attempted to kill Ōkuninushi multiple times, but each time, his son-in-law narrowly escaped with the help of his daughter. Ultimately, taking advantage of Susanoo's deep sleep, Ōkuninushi stole his father-in-law's sword, bow, and the Amano-koto, and fled in haste with his wife. When Susanoo awoke and could not catch up, he shouted from behind, "If you use my great sword and bow to ambush and kill your half-brothers, you will become the great deity who rules over Ashihara no Nakatsukuni!"

Faced with such a cruel second son, the Emperor was greatly fearful, and thus dispatched him to subdue the Xiong Zengjian brothers, who refused to obey the imperial orders, seizing the opportunity to distance himself from them. The young prince, possessing both wisdom and bravery, disguised himself as a woman and infiltrated the banquet at the Xiong Zengjian household, seizing the chance to kill both of the valiant brothers. Afterwards, he adopted the name of the enemy as his own (a custom not uncommon in ancient times), and was known as Wokendō.

The title of "Governor of the Military Affairs of the Six States" was finally obtained by the Japanese King Jizei in 451. However, Emperor Wen of Liu Song removed the tributary state Baekje and replaced it with the local state of "Gaya." The Southern Dynasties hoped to use Japan and Baekje to restrain the expansion of Goguryeo on the Korean Peninsula. Consequently, the five Japanese kings sent envoys to pay tribute thirteen times, and ultimately, during the reign of Emperor Wu of Liang, the rank of Japanese King Wu was elevated to "General Who Conquers the East," surpassing that of the King of Baekje.

Regardless of the origins of the Yamato dynasty, whether from northern Kyushu, southern Kyushu, or the Yamato homeland, and whether it has any connection to the previous Yamatai kingdom, this dynasty has since established itself in the central region of Honshu, continuing its legacy to this day. Consequently, the Japanese often promote the purity of their imperial lineage, claiming "a lineage of ten thousand generations"—however, an increasing number of people are gradually losing faith in this naive falsehood. What we can ascertain today is that the Yamato dynasty rose to prominence in the 4th century, and it or its successors gradually unified the Japanese archipelago, and it or its successors have since continued to use the name "Yamato dynasty," while also altering and stitching together their respective genealogies.

At that time, China was in the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, and had only political influence over the northeastern region and the Goguryeo kingdom on the Korean Peninsula, with no military deterrence. In 420, the Southern Dynasty's Emperor Wu of Song, Liu Yu, conferred the title of General Who Pacifies the East upon the king of Baekje, ranking above the king of Wa. In 438, the king of Wa, Jin, sent envoys to pay tribute, expressing his dissatisfaction and hoping that Liu Song would confer upon him the title of "Commissioner with Special Authority, Commander of Military Affairs of the Six States of Wa, Baekje, Silla, Jinhan, Mahan, and Byeonhan, General Who Pacifies the East, King of Wa." If Liu Song had agreed to his request, it would have undoubtedly recognized the legitimate rule of Wa over the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. Emperor Wen of Song was not a fool; he only agreed to the titles of "General Who Pacifies the East" and "King of Wa."

The last generation of deities refers to Izanagi and Izanami (this is the phonetic spelling of their names in kanji from the "Nihon Shoki", while the "Kojiki" records them as Izanagi no Mikoto and Izanami no Mikoto, with "Mikoto" also written as "命", which is a term of respect). The two deities were originally siblings, but the brother wished to "insert my surplus into your deficiency". After the two deities sang around each other in circles, they became husband and wife

The Japanese have consistently used Chinese characters as their formal writing system. Even today, the phonetic scripts hiragana and katakana are derived from certain components of Chinese characters in their cursive and regular forms. In contemporary Japanese, a single kanji often has two readings, known as on'yomi and kun'yomi. The kun'yomi originates from expressing the meaning of the kanji using native Japanese language, while the on'yomi is the direct reading of the kanji based on the pronunciation of the imported Chinese language—due to the varying times of importation, distinctions such as ancient Chinese sounds, Wu sounds, and Tang sounds exist.

Most importantly, the prototype of a nation or a cloud nation was born in Japan during this period. In the year 57 AD, there was a country called "Nanguo" on the eastern islands, which sent envoys to the Eastern Han capital Luoyang to pay tribute, receiving from Emperor Guangwu the "Seal of the King of Han Wei Nanguo." According to the envoy, his homeland was called "Wa," which comprised over a hundred countries, with Nanguo located at the southernmost point. "Wei Nanguo" means "the slave country of Wa territory." This gold seal was excavated in the 18th century from Shika Island at the mouth of Hakata Bay in northern Kyushu, Japan, confirming the authenticity of this event recorded in Chinese historical texts.

In order to rescue Silla, King Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo launched multiple military campaigns against Baekje and the Japanese province of Imna. The rule of Wa (Japan) at the southern tip of the Korean Peninsula was precarious, forcing them to cross the sea to pay tribute to China in search of support. Beginning in the ninth year of the Yixi era of the Eastern Jin (413 AD), the Five Kings of Wa repeatedly sent envoys to the Southern Dynasties to pay tribute and acknowledge their vassalage, hoping that the Southern Dynasties would intervene to halt Goguryeo's expansion on the Korean Peninsula.

According to legend, due to disobeying the divine will, Emperor Jimmu immediately ceased to breathe. Consequently, Empress Jingu, supported by the high-ranking official Kan'na, disregarding her pregnancy, personally led troops across the sea to attack the Korean Peninsula. This empress later came to be known as "Empress Jingu." The tales surrounding Empress Jingu's conquest of the Three Han (Silla, Baekje, and Mimana) are largely unfounded and self-deceptive narratives.

From the last statement, it seems that Susanoo did not genuinely intend to kill his son-in-law, but rather wanted him to endure some hardships and undergo trials. In the myths of various countries, there are indeed numerous examples of heroic figures who, during their youth, faced adversities, even persecution from their relatives, and were ultimately rescued by their mothers or wives, leading to their eventual great achievements. In summary, Ōkuninushi followed his father-in-law's instructions and ultimately became the ruler of Japan, or more accurately, the ruler of the Izumo region. He is thereafter referred to as Ōkuninushi no Kami, Yachihoko no Kami, or Uzushi no Kuni no Tamataregu.

Leaving the heavenly realm, Susanoo did not know whether he regretted his past actions. His subsequent deeds were no different from those of the half-human, half-god heroes in various myths who slay demons and save people. First, he killed the eight-headed serpent Yamata no Orochi, and from its tail, he obtained the Kusanagi no Tsurugi, which he presented to his sister Amaterasu—this is the Kusanagi sword, one of the three sacred treasures of the Japanese imperial family.

Yamatai can indeed be written in Chinese as "Daihe," but this does not necessarily indicate a direct succession relationship between the two, as "Daihe" can also be written as "Daiwa." Whether it is the Yamatai Kingdom or the original Yamato Dynasty, it is possible that neither of these was their official state name. Rather, in the process of interacting with the continent, they may have sought to assert themselves as the true rulers of the Japanese archipelago, the genuine sovereigns of "Daiwa," which is why they referred to themselves as Yamatai or Yamato.

Some scholars believe that the oath taken at the Amano-Iwato symbolizes the transition of the purification ritual from seawater to freshwater. This corresponds with archaeological findings that indicate ancient Japanese people gradually migrated from coastal areas to inland regions due to the promotion of rice cultivation. This phenomenon primarily occurred during the Yayoi period, which is why it is widely believed that the prototype of the sun goddess Amaterasu is the Queen Himiko of Yamatai.

The relentless battles—though such conflicts in myth and legend often depict the solitary struggles of ancient heroes—ultimately led the deity Yamato Iwarebiko to the Yamato region, where he established the capital, took a wife, and began to multiply and thrive. Yamato Iwarebiko is recognized as the first emperor of the Yamato dynasty, known as Emperor Jimmu. Some scholars believe that this myth symbolizes the long migration of the Yamato clan from Kyushu and their conquest of central Honshu, although it is interspersed with many inscrutable and even incomprehensible elements, the general route of the journey is largely accurate. Of course, there are also scholars who argue that this is entirely a fabrication and should not be believed at all.

Japan entered the "Kofun Culture Period" at the end of the 3rd century, with the Yamato region as its representative. During this time, a large number of burial mounds in the keyhole shape appeared across various regions, which is the origin of the period's name. Many of these ancient tombs cover vast areas and contain an astonishing number of burial goods, indicating that Japan's slave society had already reached a mature stage

The deity Ōkuninushi, originally named Ōanemuchi, is said to be the grandson of Susanoo, or alternatively, the great-grandson of his grandson. This Ōanemuchi has a gentle disposition, which often leads to him being bullied by his brothers, especially after he was the first among them to marry the beautiful Hachikami of Inaba. This incited jealousy among his siblings. They first lured him into hunting a red wild boar, then rolled down heated stones from the mountain to scald him to death. They also enticed him into a hollowed-out dead tree and suddenly removed the supporting wedge, crushing him to death. On both occasions, it was thanks to his mother, Takeminakata, who used her divine powers or sought divine assistance, that his life was restored.

Around the Han Dynasty in China (the Yayoi period in Japan), the agricultural, smelting, construction, and animal husbandry techniques brought over from the Three Han through the sea had undergone several centuries of assimilation and had reached maturity. Japan began to form numerous states centered around large clans, led by the nobility within these clans. The formation of a national consciousness transformed the significance of warfare from tribal vendettas to annexation wars aimed at unification. As the scale of warfare expanded, many states near the western coast acknowledged the legitimate rule of the Han Dynasty over Japan and sent envoys across the sea to China to pay tribute.

Not only did Yamato Take no Mikoto pacify the Xiong Zeng (which likely refers to two tribes or nations in southern Kyushu), but he also killed the warrior Izumo no Take in Izumo Province along the way. Upon his triumphant return to the capital, the Emperor said, "There are still many fierce and stubborn elements in the twelve eastern countries; I hope you can go and subdue them." Yamato Take no Mikoto sighed and said, "My father's intention is probably that he hopes I will perish." Thus, he traversed various provinces such as Owari, Sagami, Kai, and Shinano, engaging in battles and taking wives. Ultimately, he became ill from overwork and passed away in Nōbanya. It is said that after his death, he transformed into a large white bird and soared into the sky. Later generations referred to him as "Yamato Takemikazuchi" or "Nihon Takemikazuchi"—Yamato corresponds to Wa, and Takemikazuchi means command, which essentially conveys the same meaning as Yamato Take no Mikoto.

The loom, horsehide, and the weaver are elements that cannot be viewed in isolation; they represent a convoluted reflection of the ancestors' development of sericulture and brocade weaving techniques. Similar stories can also be found in ancient Chinese mythology, which tells of a girl who fell in love with a prized horse raised by her family. Her father, enraged, killed the horse and skinned it. That night, the girl mourned by the horse's corpse, and was enveloped by the horsehide, transforming into a silkworm that emitted fine threads—this is said to be the origin of the silkworm, and the silkworm deity is thus referred to as "Lady of the Horsehead"

Turning back to Amaterasu, she rules over Takamagahara, also known as the heavenly realm, and is herself born from the left eye of Izanagi, being the sun goddess. When she hides away, light immediately vanishes, and darkness envelops the surroundings. The gods, filled with fear, go to consult the son of Takeminakata, the god of dawn. Takeminakata instructs them to bring the long-crowing rooster and prepares various sacred tools such as mirrors and jewels. Finally, the heavenly deity, under the command of the gods, sings and dances before the heavenly rock door, while the gods engage in loud conversation and laughter to entice Amaterasu to emerge

This is undoubtedly a manifestation of the ancient Japanese people's fear of vengeful spirits during the "Jomon period." Interestingly, a significant contributor to helping Izanagi escape from pursuit was a few peaches. Subsequently, he named the peaches "Okikurumi no Mikoto" and instructed them to assist suffering beings in the future, just as they had helped him. It is well known that peach wood has the function of warding off evil spirits in ancient Chinese tradition, which undoubtedly serves as the source of this myth.

The Mythological System of Yamato

It is said that the tenth generation of Empress Jingu was Emperor Sujin, who dispatched Ōhiko no Mikoto to conquer the Hokuriku region, sent Kenuwa no Mikoto to conquer the Ten Kingdoms of the Tōkaidō, and sent Hikozu no Ō to conquer the Tanba region, gradually unifying Honshu except for the Tōhoku region. Following him were two generations of Emperor Keikō, who had two sons named Ōzuka no Mikoto and Kōzuka no Mikoto (also known as Yamato no Kuniyuki). Ōzuka no Mikoto offended his father, and the emperor sent Kōzuka no Mikoto to summon him for questioning. As a result, Kōzuka no Mikoto broke his elder brother's arms and legs in the toilet, wrapped him in a straw mat, and discarded him.

The "Nihon Shoki" and the "Kojiki," aside from their differences in language leading to significant discrepancies in names and titles, have very few variations in their basic narratives and can be discussed collectively. The text begins with the creation of heaven and earth, stating, "At the time when heaven and earth were first separated, various deities were born in Takamagahara"—the so-called Takamagahara refers to the heavenly realm. These deities, which emerged inexplicably from the void without roots or origins, include the deities such as Takeminakata, Takamimusubi, and Kamimusubi, totaling twelve deities across seven generations.

Amaterasu and Himeko

The "Three Sacred Treasures" of the Japanese Imperial Family are said to be the precious gifts bestowed by the sun goddess Amaterasu when her descendant descended to the earthly realm. These treasures are the Kusanagi Sword (also known as the "Ame-no-Murakumo-no-Tsurugi"), the Yata Mirror, and the Yasakani no Magatama, collectively referred to as the "Sword, Mirror, and Jewel." For over two thousand years, these three sacred treasures have been regarded as symbols of the Japanese Imperial Family and have been venerated by the people, yet their true nature is not as mysterious as it seems.

The Creation Myth of Japan

A subsequent myth, which has similar archetypes among many cultures around the world, may indeed serve as evidence of the mixed heritage of ancient Japanese people, as well as the origins of the distinctly pronounced "borrowing" mentality of the Japanese. It is said that Izanagi, longing for his deceased wife, ventured into the Land of Yomi to reunite with her. However, upon seeing Izanami's withered and grotesque appearance, her body infested with maggots and surrounded by eight different types of thunder—great thunder, fire thunder, black thunder, and others—he was so frightened that he turned and fled. Izanami, filled with rage, sent the ugly women of Yomi and the eight thunders to pursue him. Izanagi, utilizing the wisdom and supernatural powers imagined by his ancestors, ultimately escaped and blocked the exit to the Land of Yomi near the Hira-saka with a massive stone

What kind of dance is Tianyu performing with such fervor? It is said that she is dressed in splendid attire, holding a bundle of slender bamboo leaves, standing atop an inverted wooden barrel, exposing her breasts, loosening her skirt ties, and revealing her lower body, dancing wildly without pause—this is practically a striptease. However, for the ancestors who placed great emphasis on reproductive worship, it may have been a devout and magical form of prayer to the deities.

In the 243 years that followed, the king of the Dog-Riding Kingdom, Bei Mi Hu, sent envoys to Wei again. In 247, he further dispatched Zai Si Wu Yue to the Daifang Commandery of the Wei state to report that King Bei Mi Gong Hu was unjustly attacking them. The governor of Daifang, Zhang Zheng, and others were ordered to mediate the conflict. Chinese historical records state that after Bei Mi Hu's death, a male king was established in the kingdom, but the noble clans were discontented and waged war against each other. Later, a female king, Yi Yu, was appointed, and peace was restored among the people. In 248, Yi Yu sent envoys to escort Zhang Zheng back to his country, presenting living captives and wealth.

Amaterasu heard the sounds of singing and dancing, as well as laughter from outside, and found it very strange. She had hidden herself in the Heavenly Rock Cave, believing that the outside world should be shrouded in darkness. How could the gods still have the heart to gather together? She secretly peeked out to observe, but was pulled out by the deity Takeminakata, who was hiding at the door, thus restoring light to the heavens. Afterwards, the gods decided to punish Susanoo by confiscating all his possessions, cutting off his beard, pulling out his fingernails and toenails, and exiling him from Takamagahara—this form of punishment, according to research, indeed existed in Japanese history.

Having crossed the tumultuous seas and traveled thousands of miles to China, the emperor of the Han Dynasty felt it inappropriate to send the envoys back empty-handed. Naturally, he bestowed upon their leader some inexpensive local specialties, which included iron swords that were harder than bronze weapons (at that time, Japan was still in the Bronze Age, making an iron sword a treasured possession) and bronze mirrors that could reflect a person's image (these "Han mirrors" were one of the cultural symbols of the Han Empire). These two seemingly insignificant items, once exported to Japan, became immensely valuable, representing noble power. Nobles who possessed iron swords and bronze mirrors could proudly declare, "I have received the emperor's endorsement! Don't believe me? Look, this iron sword and bronze mirror are the tokens bestowed upon me by the emperor!" Nobles without iron swords and bronze mirrors were envious to the point of fury, and thus they imitated this trend, acquiring their own sets of iron swords and bronze mirrors to feign status. Over time, iron swords and bronze mirrors became symbols of power. In the grand tombs of the Yayoi period that have been excavated, these two imported items are often found.

Japan likely did not have a locally developed writing system. It was not until the 3rd century, during the era of the Yamatai Kingdom, that Chinese characters began to be imported to record the language. Around the year 405 AD (according to older theories, 283 AD), Wang In, a scholar of the Five Classics from Baekje (an ancient kingdom located in the southwestern part of the Korean Peninsula), came to Japan and presented to Emperor Yōjin ten volumes of the Analects annotated by Zheng Xuan and one volume of the Thousand Character Classic. Emperor Yōjin appointed him as the teacher of Prince Tōdō Waka, who studied Chinese classics—this likely marks the beginning of the widespread learning and use of Chinese characters among the Japanese elite.

In the myths and legends, it is mentioned that after swearing an oath at the Amanohashidate River, Susanoo refused to leave Takamagahara. Not only that, he caused chaos everywhere, giving his sister Amaterasu a great headache. Ultimately, Susanoo opened a large hole in the ceiling of the weaving room and threw in a skinned zebra, which fatally injured the weaver, who was weaving, in her lower body due to the shuttle's impact. As a result, Amaterasu felt frightened and hid in the Amano Iwato, refusing to come out again.

According to the assignment of Izanagi, Amaterasu governs Takamagahara (the heavenly realm), Tsukuyomi governs the land of night (the underworld), and Susanoo governs the ocean. However, Susanoo wept daily and refused to take action. When Izanagi asked him why, he replied, "I wish to go to the land of my mother, the root of Kushi (referring to the land of Yomi)." In a fit of rage, Izanagi expelled him.

The mythological era of Japan is primarily recorded in two texts: the "Nihon Shoki," which is written in pure Chinese, and the "Kojiki," which is transcribed using Chinese characters and phonetics. Both works were completed in the early 8th century, and thus, compared to works like the "Iliad," which were formed during a barbaric age, their authenticity is certainly not very high; one might even say that eighty percent of it is fabricated. Especially when considering the political environment before and after the completion of these two texts, it becomes quite easy to identify which parts were undoubtedly subject to intentional fabrication and distortion—this is a topic for another discussion, and shall not be elaborated upon for now

These matters of submission to China, the "Chronicles of Japan" and the "Nihon Shoki" naturally do not wish to record, but prefer to embellish the conquest of that region with various splendid mythical colors. It is said that Emperor Nakaoi's empress was named Ikunaga Tamemai, who claimed to be possessed by a deity, urging the emperor to attack the "western countries." However, when Emperor Nakaoi looked westward, he saw only the vast ocean and no land, and in anger retorted, "You must be a lying deity."

This passage is very interesting, as it features a motif that appears in nearly all ancestral myths. For instance, in China, there is a related legend of Fuxi and Nuwa, which is passed down in the southwestern region. It is said that a great flood descended from the heavens, submerging all things, leaving only a pair of siblings, Fuxi and Nuwa. In order to continue their lineage, the two discussed marriage, and thus they sang and chased around the Pillar of Heaven, ultimately achieving a good outcome

Jomon Culture Period

We must return from mythology to historical facts. The period from 300 BC to 200 AD in Japan is known as the "Yayoi Culture Period". This is due to the increasingly close connections with northern China and the Korean Peninsula, the introduction of metal tools, and the rapid expansion of rice cultivation. Representative Yayoi pottery was discovered in Yayoi Town, Bunkyo Ward, Tokyo, which is how this period got its name

Due to the lack of indigenous writing, the ancient history of Japan can only be hypothesized based on archaeological excavations or inferred in conjunction with later or even foreign written records, the inaccuracy of which is evident. Below, we will roughly deduce possible scenarios based on Japan's mythological legends and archaeological findings

Since the iron sword and bronze mirror have become symbols of power, certain items believed to have a miraculous origin have been regarded as sacred objects of the clan, passed down from one generation to the next. Later, with the spread of Shinto, many nations became religious states where divine and secular powers were equally emphasized. Consequently, in order to promote the idea of "divine right of kings," the ruler included ritual vessels used in religious ceremonies, such as the curved jade, as representations of royal authority. Thus, the image of the sovereign holding a sword in the right hand, a mirror in the left, and the jade seal hanging on the chest became popular. Until the Yamato dynasty unified Japan, this custom of representing the sovereign with the sword, mirror, and seal continued and was further developed, leading to the creation of related sensational news and complex succession rituals, ultimately establishing the sword, mirror, and seal as unique symbols of the legitimate imperial family, a legacy that endures to this day

Around the mid-4th century, the Yamato dynasty of Wa began to extend its influence across the sea into southern Korea. At that time, the Korean Peninsula was divided among three kingdoms: Baekje in the southwest, Silla in the southeast, and Goguryeo, which controlled the northern part of the peninsula and parts of northeastern China. In order to counter Silla and Goguryeo, Baekje sought to entice Wa to send troops by crossing the sea. In the 60s of the 4th century, the Yamato dynasty invaded Silla and conquered the territory of Byeonhan (present-day Gyeongsangnam-do), naming it "Imna" and establishing the "Japanese Office" to govern it. Baekje, caught between the threats of Silla and Goguryeo, was thus compelled to pay tribute to Wa.

This is what is referred to as the "Legend of the Great Nation." In this legend, the once heroic and chivalrous spirit of the great ruler has completely vanished, as he must heed the opinions of his sons, who are themselves inept, ultimately leading to the loss of the nation. Does this legend conceal any real history? Some scholars believe it symbolizes the conquest of the Izumo region by the Yamato clan from northern Kyushu, while another group of scholars argues that it is entirely a fabrication created for political purposes.