Chapter Five: Political Control and the Governance of the Court
The young people acted decisively, taking action as soon as they decided to do so. Consequently, in the early hours of the following day, Kiyomori and Yoshitomo led their troops to surround the former emperor's faction, which was still engaged in endless debates at the Byakugawa Palace, and set it ablaze completely. The chaotic soldiers, still unsatisfied, then ignited the residences of Rai Chō, Waki Yoshitomo, and Chūsei, among others—unfortunately for the middle counselor Fujiwara no Ienari, his house was nearby and thus also turned to ashes in the turmoil.
The Beginning of the Cloistered Government
In the third year of Jinan (1168), the former Emperor Rokujō was hastily forced to abdicate at the age of five by the Heike clan, allowing his own son, the eight-year-old Prince Yoshitomo, to ascend the throne as Emperor Takakura. Kiyomori thus became the maternal grandfather of the emperor, and he further solidified this connection by marrying his daughter, Tokiko, to the emperor, enhancing their familial ties. From that point on, the Heike clan's power became exceedingly prominent and sought after. Kiyomori's cousin, the Grand Minister Taira no Tadamori, even arrogantly proclaimed, "Outside of this clan (the Heike), there are no true humans!"
Minamoto no Yoshiie was indeed a careless individual. If we consider the escape of the former Emperor Shirakawa to Rinnō-ji as a chance event, then the subsequent escape of the sixteen-year-old Emperor Nijō, who disguised herself as a man to evade his control and arrived at Taira no Kiyomori's Rokuhara residence, must certainly be attributed to Yoshiie's lack of vigilance. In summary, both the former Emperor and the current Emperor managed to escape, leading to Minamoto no Yoshiie losing the banner that could rally people's hearts. Conversely, Taira no Kiyomori gained a reputation for righteousness. Seizing the opportunity, Kiyomori personally led three thousand troops to attack the imperial palace, resulting in the defeat and death of Minamoto no Yoshiie—this is known as the "Heiji Rebellion".
However, it would be incorrect to say that the efforts of the retired Emperor to marginalize the Fujiwara clan had no effect at all. During his era, the Emperor ultimately regained a portion of power, and the political influence of the Fujiwara regents diminished, which had a significant impact on future generations. The Emperor Horikawa was merely a child, and according to custom, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa was to serve as regent, overseeing the court. However, the retired Emperor Shirakawa was only thirty-four years old at the time, in the prime of his life, and despite having abdicated, he was unwilling to relinquish power. He established the "Insei" system and appointed capable individuals of lower status to positions such as "Betto" and "Nenyaku" to manage state affairs—this marked the beginning of what is known as "Insei" governance. The glory of the Fujiwara clan had already begun to fade by this point.
Coincidentally, Emperor Go-Shirakawa, who had already discerned the plot of the former emperor, summoned Fujiwara no Tadatsune, Taira no Kiyomori (the nephew of Taira no Tadamasa), and Minamoto no Yoshiie (the son of Minamoto no Yoshitomo) on the same day to discuss matters. Kiyomori and Yoshiie, along with others, were young warriors eager to take the initiative, advocating for a preemptive strike. As for their audacity to raise swords against their elders, who were also the leaders of their clan, it remains unclear whether they were manipulated by the so-called 'loyalty,' lured by personal gain, or driven by inflated ambition.
After the death of Fujiwara Kaneie, his son Fujiwara Michitaka assumed the positions of regent and chancellor. Following Michitaka's death, his brother Michikane took over. Emperor Ichijō reigned for twenty-six years, showing little interest in affairs, governing with a "hands-off" approach, and was praised as the "Benevolent and Magnanimous Sovereign"—in reality, he was quite similar to Liu Shan, the last ruler of Shu Han, except that he did not suffer the unfortunate fate of being captured. In the eighth year of the Kankō era (1011), Emperor Ichijō abdicated, and Prince Jizen succeeded him as Emperor Sanjō, appointing Prince Atsunari, the son of Emperor Ichijō, as the crown prince.
Certainly, the estate of Taira no Masakado is located in the Samma District of the Kazusa Province, and thus he also refers to himself as Samma no Kōjirō. It is said that since the time of his father, a distinguished general, wild horses were captured and bred for improvement within the territory. Later, it directly became a royal horse-breeding ground. Taira no Masakado inherited this ambition and gradually trained a cavalry warrior group with considerable combat strength.
With the division of the imperial family, the regent family also split into two factions. At that time, the kampaku, Fujiwara no Yoshinaga, and his elder brother, Tadamitsu, stood on the side of Emperor Go-Shirakawa. Therefore, for Emperor Sutoku to restore his reign, he had no choice but to resort to military force. Thus, on the night of July 10, he summoned Fujiwara no Yoshinaga, Taira no Tadamasa, Minamoto no Yoriie, and his son Minamoto no Yoriaki to discuss how to initiate a military coup.
Fujiwara Kaneie suffered a silent loss and had no choice but to endure temporarily, waiting for the day when his elder brother would pass away or fall from power. However, Fujiwara Kanetaka seemed to harbor deep resentment towards his brother who dared to contest his authority. In the second year of the Jianyuan era (977), he passed away, and just before his death, he found an excuse to remove his brother Kaneie from the high position of Captain of the Right Imperial Guard (Junior Third Rank), demoting him to Minister of the Interior (Senior Fourth Rank). At the same time, he transferred the position of regent to their cousin Fujiwara Yoshitomo (the second son of Fujiwara Saneyori).
Almost simultaneously with the rebellion of Taira no Masakado, the "Fujiwara no Sumitomo" rebellion erupted in western Japan. Fujiwara no Sumitomo was originally a local official in Iyo Province, and after his term ended, he was unwilling to relinquish his position. Instead, he colluded with pirates and plotted to incite a rebellion. In the second year of the Tenkyō era (939), Fujiwara no Sumitomo suddenly led a thousand warships to launch a rebellion, attacking the government offices of Awaji and Sanuki provinces. The imperial court issued an order to suppress him, and he retreated westward, entering Chikuzen Province in Kyushu, where he attacked and occupied the Dazaifu government office.
After the death of the last Emperor, the throne was passed to Prince Atsuyoshi, the son of the Crown Prince, who was also the grandson of Fujiwara no Michinaga, thus becoming Emperor Go-Suzaku. Emperor Go-Suzaku reigned for ten years before abdicating in favor of Crown Prince Chinin, who became Emperor Go-Reizei. Emperor Go-Reizei appointed Prince Yoshinari as the Crown Prince.
This prolonged tug-of-war ignited flames of war throughout the fertile Kanto region, causing the populace to be displaced. Upon realizing that victory was unattainable in the short term, Taira no Tadakiyo rode swiftly to the capital and, in November of that year, finally obtained the imperial decree to campaign against Taira no Kiyomori. By the second year of the Tianqing era (939), with the death of Taira no Yoshikane, Taira no Tadakiyo began to take full responsibility for the campaign as the imperial envoy and head of the Taira clan. However, by this time, Taira no Kiyomori had already successively occupied the provincial offices of Hitachi, Shimotsuke, and Kamitsuke, and his influence had nearly encompassed the entire eight provinces of Kanto. In December of that year, he even openly declared himself emperor in Sarushima of Shimōsa Province, taking the title "New Emperor" and announcing the independence of the eight provinces of Kanto.
In the second year of Tianchang (825 AD), Prince Takadake, the grandson of Emperor Kammu, was demoted to a commoner and granted the surname Taira, thus establishing the Kammu Taira clan of Takadake. By the first year of Kanpei (889 AD), Prince Takamitsu (son of Prince Takemi) was also demoted and granted a surname, leading to the Kammu Taira clan of Takamitsu. At that time, Prince Takamitsu was appointed as a Junior Fifth Rank Lower, and he arrived in the vast Kanto Plain.
The rebellion in the East has been quelled, and the peaceful court has begun to take action, dispatching a large army to subdue Fujiwara no Sumitomo in the West. The following year (941 and the year of the *Tushu*), the official army landed in Hakata, advancing into Kyushu. Fujiwara no Sumitomo fled to his stronghold on Nizushima, where he was killed by Tachibana no Toyoharu, the governor of Iyo Province. Thus, the "Jōhei and Tenkyō Rebellion," which lasted a full six years, was finally brought to an end.
After the death of Taira no Kiyomori, Taira no Masakado returned to the Kanto region, continuously expanding his territory, even going so far as to engage in battle with his uncle Taira no Kuniyoshi and Taira no Kiyomori. In the fifth year of the Jōhei era (935), war officially broke out, historically known as the "Rebellion of Taira no Masakado"
Please pay attention, the imperial lineage after Emperor Murakami is as follows: Murakami's son Reizei, Murakami's son En'yū, Reizei's son Kazan, En'yū's son Ichijō, Reizei's son Sanjō, and Ichijō's son Goichijō. This means that the political power alternated between the descendants of the Reizei and En'yū emperors, gradually forming a tradition. Therefore, after Emperor Goichijō ascended the throne, he appointed Prince Atsumitsu, the son of Emperor Sanjō, as the Crown Prince. However, Prince Atsumitsu did not have the bloodline of Fujiwara no Michinaga, which made Michinaga feel a sense of crisis. Thus, he exerted various pressures on Prince Atsumitsu, ultimately forcing him to resign from the position of Crown Prince and appointing Prince Tokiyoshi as the new Crown Prince. After Emperor Goichijō ascended the throne, he appointed Prince Atsumitsu, the son of Emperor Sanjō, as the Crown Prince. However, Prince Atsumitsu did not have the bloodline of Fujiwara no Michinaga, which made Michinaga feel a sense of crisis. Thus, he exerted various pressures on Prince Atsumitsu, ultimately forcing him to resign from the position of Crown Prince and appointing Prince Tokiyoshi as the new Crown Prince. Prince Tokiyoshi was the full-brother of Emperor Goichijō, meaning that their mother was also Fujiwara no Michinaga's daughter, Shōko—thus breaking the convention, the descendants of Emperor Reizei were excluded from the imperial line.
The Rebellion of Taira no Masakado did not arise from a mere coincidence. On one hand, the emerging warrior class sought to elevate their social status by seizing power from the aristocrats, whom they looked down upon for their lack of practical skills and their extreme decadence, characterized by mere indulgence in leisure and poetry. On the other hand, the common people were dissatisfied with the increasingly weakened rule of the Heian dynasty and desired changes to the social structure. Taira no Masakado partially aligned himself with this trend, and coupled with his exceptional martial prowess and bravery in battle, he achieved numerous victories across the Kanto region. Furthermore, the common people were also discontent with the declining governance of the Heian era and aspired for reform in the societal framework. Taira no Masakado's alignment with these sentiments, along with his formidable strength and valor, enabled him to dominate the Kanto region and achieve repeated successes.
As for Fujiwara no Kanemasa, he certainly did not place all his bets on Emperor Ryonin alone. For the somewhat eccentric Emperor Reizei, he also sent a daughter, who gave birth to Prince Kizane, the younger brother of Emperor Kazan. As soon as Emperor Ichijo ascended the throne, he appointed Prince Kizane as the Crown Prince and simultaneously sent another daughter, Suiko, to become the Crown Princess. Suiko was not only the Crown Prince's primary wife but also his aunt. In any case, the Japanese do not care much about generational hierarchy, and naturally, Fujiwara no Kanemasa cared even less. What he sought was to strengthen his ties with the imperial family, thereby solidifying his power as a maternal relative and regent.
Returning to discuss the situation in the capital, the retired Emperor Shirakawa later became a monk and devoted himself to Buddhism, also known as Emperor Shirakawa the Dharma. However, he was reluctant to relinquish power, and his regency lasted for a total of forty-one years through the reigns of Emperors Horikawa, Toba, and Shōtoku. In the fourth year of Daiji (1129), Emperor Shirakawa passed away, and immediately, Emperor Toba emerged to exercise the authority of the retired emperor. Nevertheless, during the regency period, the power of the Fujiwara clan's regents and kampaku was not completely undermined; they maintained their hold over the emperor. Although they were somewhat diminished in stature, they essentially shared in a dual political system with the retired emperor. This dual political structure led to further chaos in the situation. However, during the regency period, the power of the Fujiwara clan's regents and kampaku was not completely undermined; they maintained their hold over the emperor. Although they were somewhat diminished in stature, they essentially shared in a dual political system with the retired emperor. This dual political structure led to further chaos in the situation
After the disturbances, Taira no Kiyomori was promoted to the rank of Junior Third Rank Councilor. The Japanese often like to correspond their official ranks with those of the Tang Dynasty, and many official titles have Tang names; the Tang name for Councilor is Chancellor or Prime Minister. From then on, Kiyomori was respectfully referred to as Prime Minister. He played a significant role in both pacifications, achieving remarkable merits and commanding great authority. Initially, the retired Emperor Shirakawa favored Kiyomori even more, continuing to utilize him to strengthen his regency. However, later on, sensing a shift, he wished to withdraw, but it was already too late.
In June of the second year, Ping Zhensheng returned to Guandong, joining forces with Ping Liangjian to collectively campaign against Taira no Kiyomori. In the seventh year of the Chengping era (937), fierce battles broke out at Zisi Crossing and Horikoshi Crossing in August. Due to Taira Liangjian raising the banner of the Taira clan's overall commander, the morale of Kiyomori's troops plummeted, resulting in a significant defeat. However, the power of Taira no Kiyomori did not collapse as a result of this defeat; he reorganized his forces and soon turned the tide in the Battle of Gundakiyama.
Taira no Kiyomori suffered a defeat in his initial battle and retreated to the northern mountains of Kō island in the province of Kazusa. Taira no Munemori and others pursued him relentlessly, catching up with Kiyomori on February 14, where both sides engaged in a final decisive battle. Taira no Kiyomori was extraordinarily brave, and the mounted warriors under his command fought tenaciously against the enemy. Despite facing an adversary nearly ten times their number, they continued to fight fiercely without retreating, bringing Taira no Munemori's forces to the brink of collapse.
The selection of this successor has caused great dissatisfaction among the ruling Fujiwara clan, particularly among the sons of Fujiwara no Michinaga, Yoritomo and Noritomo. This is because both Yoritomo and Noritomo had previously married their daughters to Emperor Kozei, yet none of them bore children. Prince Yoshihito is the son of the Emperor and Princess Shōko. How could the heir not be a nephew or grandson of the Fujiwara clan? Therefore, the Yoritomo brothers sought various means to eliminate Prince Yoshihito. However, the so-called nephew or grandson of the Fujiwara clan does not actually exist. Even if the Crown Prince were to be deposed, who would take his place? How could the heir not be a nephew or grandson of the Fujiwara clan? Therefore, the Yoritomo brothers sought various means to eliminate Prince Yoshihito. However, the so-called nephew or grandson of the Fujiwara clan does not actually exist. Even if the Crown Prince were to be deposed, who would take his place?
In ancient Japan, there was a scarcity of warhorses and the quality of horse breeds was poor, making it difficult to claim the existence of a true cavalry corps. Generally, armies were formed by a core of mounted samurai accompanied by foot soldiers. Various historical records mention a certain number of cavalry, often including these foot soldiers in the count—true independent cavalry units only emerged in modern times. However, it is precisely for this reason that the forces under Taira no Kiyomori had the largest number of warhorses and the best quality, and although they did not constitute a true cavalry corps, they were still formidable in the world.
Thus, the cloistered government promoted the expansion and mutual confrontation of the samurai factions, a new era is on the horizon, and great chaos is about to ensue
The power of the Taira clan began to expand in the various states of Kanto. After the death of King Takawashi, the eldest son Taira no Kuniyoshi ruled the Hitachi Province, the second son Taira no Yoshikane governed the Kazusa Province, and the third son Taira no Yoshimune presided over the Shimosa Province. Taira no Yoshimune had previously served as the general of the defense headquarters, and his son was the renowned Taira no Kiyomori. After Yoshimune's death, his brother Kuniyoshi took over the governance of Shimosa Province, but it is said that Kuniyoshi was a tyrant, ruling without the people's support, which deepened the conflicts between the two branches of the same family, Yoshimune and Kuniyoshi.
The Turmoil of Oshu
However, on the battlefield, weapons are merciless, and even the slightest oversight can cost a general his life. This was also true for Taira no Masakado, who was fighting at the front lines. Just as he was about to confront Taira no Koremori, he was suddenly struck by an arrow and fell from his horse, at the age of only 39. With the main commander dead, the soldiers scattered, and the situation of the battle was thus determined. The followers of the "new emperor" were successively executed, and the head of the "new emperor" was also severed and sent to the capital for public display
The Hōgen and Heiji Rebellions
This rebellion dealt a heavy blow to the power of the old nobility, strengthening the influence of local samurai factions. Although the major turmoil subsided, minor disturbances continued to arise, such as the murder of Kakei Tachikata by his subjects in the 9th year of Tenryaku (955) and the unrest caused by Fujiwara no Chizane in Shinano Province in the 1st year of Anwa (968). Amidst these various disturbances, the Heian court gradually approached its demise. In fact, the "regent politics" of the Fujiwara clan was merely a fleeting moment of brilliance for the Heian era.
Fujiwara Motokata passed away in disappointment, and shortly thereafter, Prince Hirohira and Princess Yuki also died in succession. For this reason, all the ominous events that occurred in the imperial palace during that time were attributed to the vengeful spirits of Motokata and his mother and daughter, especially the great fire in the fourth year of the Tenchō era (960), which burned throughout the night, reducing the palace to ashes, with most of the treasured heirlooms destroyed (even the Three Sacred Treasures may have been lost in this fire, replaced by a new generation of Western goods) — the Heian period was indeed an era rife with ghosts and vengeful spirits
It is said that Emperor Suzaku was born to Emperor Daigo and Fujiwara no Nagamichi's daughter, Teiko. Allegedly, fearing that the vengeful spirit of Sugawara no Michizane would take his life (as had happened with Prince Motoharu and Prince Kiyomori), he was confined within curtains and drapes from birth, only seeing the light of day at the age of three. Naturally, a child raised in such a manner would not be in good health; after ascending the throne, he was essentially incapable of governing, and the affairs of state remained in the hands of his uncle, Fujiwara no Tadahira. By the ninth year of the Tenkyō era (946), which was the fifth year since Fujiwara no Sumitomo was executed, it became apparent that the twenty-one-year-old emperor had only fathered one princess and was unlikely to have a son. His mother, Fujiwara no Teiko, then ordered him to abdicate and pass the throne to his younger brother, Prince Narimune, who became Emperor Murakami.
Thus, the Emperor was completely marginalized, and the prestige of the imperial family declined day by day. It is said that the palace has fallen into disrepair with no one to maintain it, the rampaging fox spirits cannot be subdued, and thieves plunder without being captured. In the second year of Kankō (1005), a great fire broke out again within the palace, damaging the sacred mirror, prompting the court to recast it and send envoys to Ise Shrine to offer apologies.
The Revival of Political Photography
The World of Fujiwara no Michinaga
The earliest schools introduced to Japan were the Sanron and Jojitsu sects, followed by the Hosso, Kusha, and Kegon sects. The Tang monk Jianzhen also brought the Vinaya school. By the Heian period, political power gradually shifted to the Fujiwara clan, leading to a slight decline in the influence of Buddhism. During this era, the main schools that flourished were the Tendai sect founded by the missionary master Saicho and the Shingon sect established by the great teacher Kukai, with the former centered in Todai-ji in Heian-kyo and the latter centered on Mount Hiei, standing in contrast to the old Nara sects known as "Nanto Buddhism".
Subsequently, the situation unfolded entirely according to the plans of Minamoto no Yoshiie. Kiyohara Kiyohira and the Kiyohara clan confronted each other in battle, with Yoshiie standing by Kiyohira's side. After a grueling struggle, even daring to invade the province of Dewa, he ultimately eradicated the power of Kiyohara Kiyohira in the first year of the Kwanji era (1087) — this is known as the "Last Three Years' War." Although the court later deemed that the Kiyohara clan had not engaged in rebellion and considered it a private war of Minamoto no Yoshiie, refusing to grant rewards, they soon dismissed him from his position. Fujiwara Kiyohira completely occupied the six provinces of Mutsu and restored the old Fujiwara name, subsequently establishing the semi-independent Oshu Fujiwara clan. However, Minamoto no Yoshiie was compelled to use his own family wealth to reward his loyal subjects, which further consolidated the loyalty of the samurai in the Kanto region.
Time flows like water; in the blink of an eye, it has been twenty-four years since Emperor Kōgen ascended the throne. The Fujiwara clan has yet to devise a response, and he has already passed away. Prince Yoshinari ascends to the imperial throne as the subsequent Emperor Sanjō. Fujiwara no Yoritomo, feeling disheartened, relinquishes the position of regent to his brother, Yoshitomo, and retreats to a secondary role.
Prince Atsunari was the son of Fujiwara Kaneie and the grandson of Fujiwara Michinaga, the brother of Michikane. In order to ascend to the position of regent, Michinaga repeatedly pressured Emperor Sanjo to abdicate. Coincidentally, Emperor Sanjo suffered from a severe eye ailment, nearly leading to blindness, and after only five years on the throne, he stepped down. Prince Atsunari ascended the throne, becoming the later Emperor Go-Ichijo. At just nine years old, Emperor Atsunari's grandfather, Fujiwara Michinaga, rightfully took the regent's seat.
Since Emperor Uda, it has been a full one hundred and seventy years. The last three emperors are the only ones without the Fujiwara clan as relatives by marriage. Moreover, he ascended the throne at the age of thirty-five, in the prime of his life, full of vigor, and sought to push aside the Fujiwara Northern House to govern independently. The last three emperors implemented a series of reform measures, such as issuing the "Enkyu Estate Reorganization Order," establishing a "Record Estate Contract Office" in the central government to manage and reorganize estates across the country, and standardizing measurement criteria—of course, he primarily targeted the large and small estates under the Fujiwara clan, which inevitably provoked opposition from the Fujiwara courtiers. As the reforms faced numerous obstacles, the last three emperors devised a plan: if they gradually excluded the Fujiwara bloodline from the imperial family, what qualifications would you have to continue dominating the court?
The difference between the regency and the political power of the shōgunate is primarily reflected in their approach to garnering support from the warrior class, which directly led to the establishment of the samurai government. When the samurai class emerged in the mid-ninth century, it was characterized by a high and low spectrum. The lower end consisted of local estate officials and the combat groups they formed, while the higher end comprised the Minamoto and Taira, who were military aristocrats owning estates and had been repeatedly summoned by the court to quell rebellions in remote areas or to campaign against the Emishi, thereby gradually expanding their power. Ultimately, these two ends merged to form a unique organizational structure (a hierarchical samurai group in the form of clans), characterized by frugality and martial valor, in stark contrast to the corruption and extravagance of the court nobles. At that time, society could be said to have formed four major power groups: at the center, the rising regency and the declining Fujiwara clan, and in the localities, the samurai groups led or spiritually guided by the Minamoto or Taira.
In the second year of Jushō (1155), the frail and sickly Emperor Konoe passed away at the tender age of seventeen. The retired Emperor Toba designated Prince Masahito, the younger brother of the retired Emperor Shōtoku, to ascend the throne, who is known as Emperor Go-Shirakawa, famously referred to as "the greatest tengu of Japan." It is said that the retired Emperor Shōtoku was forced to abdicate by Emperor Toba and constantly harbored thoughts of making a comeback. The following year, in the first year of Hōgen (1156), Emperor Toba passed away, and the retired Emperor Shōtoku seized the opportunity to conspire with the Left Minister Fujiwara no Yoshinaga (a great-grandson of Fujiwara no Yoshifusa) to plan a restoration.
Taira no Kiyomori first offered his adopted daughter, Taira no Tokiko, in marriage to the retired Emperor Shirakawa, resulting in the birth of Prince Kenshin, who was designated as the Crown Prince. With this support, he was appointed as the Inner Minister in November of the first year of the Jōan era (1166), and the following year he was further promoted to the position of Chancellor, gradually consolidating his power. At that time, there were sixteen members of the Taira clan among the court nobles, over thirty individuals in the upper ranks, and their influence extended throughout the country, with nearly half of the more than sixty provincial governors being from the Taira family.
At that time, the authority of the court had not yet declined, and local powers could not possibly dominate a region without engaging with the central aristocracy. The same was true for the Taira clan; Taira no Yoshimune had sent his son Taira no Kiyomori to the capital to serve the Left Minister Fujiwara no Tadahira. Almost simultaneously, his rival, Taira no Sadamori, the son of Taira no Kunihira, also sought the patronage of the Right Minister Fujiwara no Sadataka, who was also from the Northern House and a cousin of Tadahira.
Since the Fujiwara clan held significant power over the nation, local aristocrats sought to align themselves with them, consequently "entrusting" their estates to the clan. As a result, the Fujiwara family became the largest landowners, and by the 11th century, the estates under their name accounted for approximately one-tenth of all land in Japan. Fujiwara Kaneie can be regarded as a key figure in the peak of the Fujiwara clan's regent politics; his private institution, the "Seishō," became the de facto center of power, and even the orders issued by the Seishō (Seishō's documents, His Highness's teachings) were more effective than the edicts of the Emperor and the official documents of the Chancellor.
The Taira clan originally belonged to the warrior class, yet their Rokuhara regime was not a true warrior government in the genuine sense. It existed as a dependency on the politics of the regents and the cloistered government, lacking independence—this is also the fundamental reason why the Taira descendants gradually became more like court nobles. In terms of Taira Kiyomori's own intentions, he aspired to completely overthrow the court politics, thereby allowing the Rokuhara regime to emerge and truly reign over the world. However, constructing an entirely new society cannot be achieved merely by suppressing the power of the court nobles or even by confining the Emperor and the retired Emperor. From this perspective, both Taira Kiyomori and Minamoto no Yoshitomo, whom he defeated, ultimately failed. After Kiyomori's death, his successor Taira Munemori completely shifted direction, becoming entirely subservient to the retired Emperor Shirakawa...
By the way, Yoshimitsu's younger brother, Shinra Saburo Yoshimitsu, originally held the position of Left Commander of the Imperial Guards in the capital. Upon hearing that his elder brother was embroiled in a fierce battle in Oshu, he abandoned his official duties to offer assistance. Yoshimitsu later became the renowned founder of the Kai Takeda clan.
In the countryside, the samurai engaged in mutual slaughter, and the decaying Heian court initially paid little heed. However, when Taira no Masakado proclaimed himself the "New Emperor," the central aristocracy, who had always considered themselves untouchable, was taken aback. Emperor Suzaku hastily summoned the monks from the seven major temples to pray for blessings and avert disaster, and then dispatched the General of the Eastern Expedition, Fujiwara no Tadakuni, to quell the unrest. Fujiwara no Tadakuni had very few troops at his disposal and had to seek assistance from local powerful clans, calling upon Taira no Sadamori, the governor of Hitachi, and Fujiwara no Hidesuke, the governor of Shimotsuke.
The Rebellion of Chengping and Tianqing
At this time, the Qingyuan clan was embroiled in internal strife. Qingyuan Wuze's grandson, Qingyuan Zhenheng, led one faction, while his half-brother Jiaheng and his other half-brother Qingheng formed another faction, frequently engaging in armed conflicts. Taking advantage of the situation, Minamoto no Yoshie intervened in the affairs of the Qingyuan family and, after the death of Qingyuan Zhenheng, oversaw the division of the six provinces of Mutsu, granting the prosperous southern three provinces to Qingheng and the cold northern three provinces to Jiaheng, deliberately inciting discord between the two.
The first to die at the hands of Ping Jiangmen was his uncle, Ping Guoxiang. At this time, Ping Guoxiang's son, Ping Zhensheng, was still in the capital. Aware that even if he returned to his hometown, he would be unable to contend with the local tyrant Ping Jiangmen, he forcibly suppressed his anger and wrote a letter to his cousin Ping Jiangmen, expressing his willingness to turn hostility into friendship. Upon receiving the letter, Jiangmen became even more self-satisfied, arrogant to the extreme, and then turned his aggression towards another uncle, Ping Liangjian.
In fact, since the Nara period, Japan has initiated a movement to deify its rulers, claiming that the imperial family is a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, referred to as the "descendants of the heavenly grandchild." The emperor is considered a deity, and ordinary people are not permitted to covet the throne of the emperor of all Japan. However, it is noteworthy that Taira no Masakado is also a descendant of the emperor, which led him to believe that he had a legitimate claim to establish a nation and to indulge in the role of an emperor himself
Starting from the Tianwu Dynasty, the court began to distribute Buddhist scriptures such as the "Golden Light Sutra" to various regions, instructing the subjects to recite them. Later, large statues of Shakyamuni Buddha, measuring six zhang, and seven-story pagodas were constructed in various locations. In the thirteenth year of Tianping (741 AD), Emperor Seimu issued an edict requiring each country to build "Kokubun-ji" and "Kokubun-niji," which mandated the establishment of state-sponsored temples in each administrative region. The central temple overseeing the Kokubun-ji across the regions was Todai-ji, while the central temple for the Kokubun-niji was Yamato Hokke-ji, both located near the capital.
Let us first discuss the "First Nine Years' War" and the "Last Three Years' War," which were mentioned earlier and nearly allowed the Genji forces to expand from the Kanto region to the Tohoku area. In the remote regions of the Tohoku, specifically in Mutsu Province and Dewa Province, a large number of prisoners were held, some of whom were the Emishi captured during various expeditions, while others were criminals exiled by the court. The Abe family, having managed the prisoners in Mutsu Province for generations, gradually expanded their influence, with their clan spreading across the six counties of Mutsu, effectively forming an independent kingdom. In the sixth year of Eishō (1051), the court appointed Minamoto no Yoshiie, the son of Minamoto no Yorinobu, as the governor of Mutsu, tasking him with restoring order in the Tohoku region. Upon Yoshiie's arrival in Mutsu, Abe no Yoritsugu, the head of the Abe clan (the clan leader), immediately expressed his willingness to comply with his command, influenced by the reputation of both father and son.
It is said that Emperor Kazan ascended to the throne at the mere age of seventeen. This ruler was often compared to Minamoto no Yorimasa, both being rare examples of libertines in the world. It is reported that during his enthronement ceremony, he could hardly wait to pull a female attendant behind the throne to engage in intimate activities. However, throughout history, when powerful ministers held sway, the various moral failings of the sovereign, especially those who were deposed or forced to abdicate, were likely used as excuses by these ministers to justify their usurpation of power. Such claims may not be entirely true and should not be taken at face value.
In the fourth year of Enkyu (1072), Emperor Sanjo abdicated after a mere four years of reign. He passed the throne to Prince Jinnin, born of Fujiwara Shigeiko. Prince Jinnin's consort was Fujiwara Kenko, but Kenko did not bear any sons. Subsequently, Emperor Sanjo designated Prince Shitoh, born of Minamoto Yoshiko, as the crown prince, and agreed that once Prince Shitoh ascended the throne, his full-brother Prince Fuhito would be established as the heir. In the former emperor's calculations, after a brief transitional period, there would be two consecutive emperors with no ties to the Fujiwara clan.
In ancient Japan, the administrative divisions known as "kuni" were categorized into four levels: daikuni (great country), shōkuni (upper country), chūgoku (central country), and gekuni (lower country). Many daikuni were governed by princes who held the position concurrently, which was not a permanent appointment. The true local officials were the "kai" who served as the actual governors—this was particularly the case for the shōzōkuni, where the highly esteemed prince serving as shōzōkai was effectively the governor of the shōzōkuni.
However, in August of the fourth year of Tenki (1056), just before his term was about to end, Minamoto no Yoriie suddenly reported that Abe no Yorimasa was plotting rebellion, thereby obtaining a decree for his suppression from the court. This was likely a pretext for Yoriie to truly control the Tohoku region. In any case, war broke out as a result, and the newly appointed Mutsu governor, Fujiwara no Yoshitsuna, was too frightened to take up his post, forcing the court to once again entrust this position to Minamoto no Yoriie
Starting with Taira no Takamori serving as the chief advisor, the Taira clan expanded its influence in the Kanto region. Following the "Rebellion of Taira no Kiyomori" and the "Rebellion of Taira no Tokichika" that erupted in 1028, their power in Kanto was gradually supplanted by the Minamoto clan. Taira no Tadakiyo was rewarded for his contributions in quelling the Kiyomori rebellion, and his son, Taira no Motohira, shifted their base to Iga and Ise, becoming known as the "Ise Taira clan," gradually establishing a foothold in the Kinki region. The Minamoto clan, originally serving the Fujiwara family as "Kyoto retainers," later saw Minamoto no Yorinobu of the Seiwa Genji subdue the Tokichika rebellion, seizing the opportunity to capture the Taira's influence in Kanto. They then attempted to further extend their influence into the Tohoku region through the "First Nine Years' War" and the "Last Three Years' War." Thus, the power dynamics between the Taira and Minamoto clans underwent a significant reversal.
However, seizing this opportunity, the Fujiwara Nanke family also sought to share in the benefits. The Grand Minister Fujiwara Motokata was actively working to have Prince Hirotaka appointed as the Crown Prince, as he was the son of his daughter, Yuki. However, due to the interference of Empress Anko, Emperor Murakami ultimately appointed Prince Kenpei, born of Anko, as the Crown Prince, even though this prince had only just been born two months prior.
These two noble warrior families have distinctly different developmental directions. The Taira, returning to Kyoto, began to integrate with the cloistered government, becoming a powerful weapon for the cloister to counter the Fujiwara clan. The Shirakawa Cloister selected warriors from the Ise Taira to guard its palace, and since these warriors were primarily stationed on the northern side of the palace, they were referred to as the "Northern Warriors." In contrast, the Minamoto expanded their influence in the local regions, particularly in the Kanto area, where many local lords transferred their land from the Fujiwara clan to the Minamoto. This trend became so prevalent that the imperial court once issued a decree prohibiting it.
Moreover, Emperor Murakami's efforts to centralize power yielded little success. Empress Anko, originally the granddaughter of Fujiwara no Tadahira and the daughter of the Minister of the Right, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa, possessed a strong-willed character and frequently intervened in state affairs. Although it is not uncommon in Japanese tradition for empresses to engage in politics, the formidable Fujiwara Northern House loomed behind this empress. By indulging Anko's actions, Emperor Murakami effectively opened the door to thieves, allowing the influence of the Fujiwara Northern House to resurge.
After the war, Minamoto no Yoshiie was appointed to the fourth rank as the Iyo no Kami, while his eldest son, Minamoto no Yoshiie, was appointed to the fifth rank as the Dewa no Kami, and his second son, Minamoto no Yoshitsuna, was appointed as the Saemon no Jo. Additionally, Kiyohara no Takemitsu was exceptionally appointed as the fifth rank Shogun of the Defense Force, effectively taking over the territory of the Abe clan. It can be said that Minamoto no Yoshiie, due to insufficient preparation, failed in his attempt to expand his influence in Mutsu Province, ultimately benefiting the Kiyohara family of Dewa, which must have left him feeling quite resentful. However, there were still many opportunities ahead; by the third year of Akiho (1083), his son Minamoto no Yoshiie was appointed as the Mutsu no Kami, returning once again to the Tohoku region
It is said that since the regency has become a tradition, the victorious Emperor Shirakawa in the political struggle was unwilling to cling to the throne. Within two years, he abdicated in favor of Prince Morihito, who became Emperor Nijō, and took on the more powerful role of retired emperor. However, due to his unjust rewards and punishments, failing to satisfy the samurai's appetites, his abdication led to the "Heiji Rebellion".
The last Emperor reigned for twenty-one years, during which Fujiwara no Michinaga and his son Fujiwara no Yorimichi successively held power. Michinaga's influence was overwhelming, and people of the time remarked that his status was no different from that of an emperor, saying, "The regent is as the emperor," and "Only Michinaga's heart is concerned with the rise and fall of the world." Fujiwara no Michinaga was indeed proud of his achievements, even composing the verse, "This world is my world, like the full moon without flaw," reflecting his arrogance. However, he was truly a figure worthy of pride, serving as a pillar of the court for a full thirty years, until his death in December of the fourth year of Manju (1027), at the age of 62.
Emperor Murakami was quite eager to achieve something significant. After the passing of his uncle Fujiwara no Tadahira and his mother, the Empress Teishi, he ceased to appoint regents, aiming to reclaim power for the imperial family. Simultaneously, he implemented a series of reforms in an effort to rescue the declining state of the court. Later generations referred to the period of Emperor Daigo and Emperor Murakami's reign as the "Engi and Tenryaku administrations." However, it is essential to clarify that the so-called reforms had minimal effect, and this was by no means a time of peace and prosperity.
The Rise and Fall of Japanese Buddhism
However, the system of cloistered rule and regent politics is merely a change of form without substance. It may address the issue of the Fujiwara clan's usurpation of power, but it fundamentally fails to resolve the increasingly severe social contradictions of the time. Subsequently, the "cloistered" system replaced the Fujiwara clan as the largest landowner in Japan, and the exploitation of the common people continued unabated, showing no signs of alleviation.
Shortly after the "Anhe Incident," Emperor Reigen abdicated the throne (given his mental state, it was likely not a voluntary abdication), and his brother Prince Morihira ascended to the throne, becoming Emperor Enryo. Before Emperor Enryo's coming of age, the regents in charge of the court were Fujiwara no Tadahira and his nephew Fujiwara no Ieyasu (the eldest son of Tadahira's younger brother, Shikibu). When the Emperor reached adulthood, coincidentally, both the Tadahira brothers and Ieyasu passed away one after another, and the position of Chancellor fell to Fujiwara no Kanetaka, the second son of Shikibu. At that time, the most qualified candidates for the position of Chancellor were Fujiwara no Kanetaka and his third brother Kanekata, and the two engaged in fierce competition. However, Kanetaka took the lead; it is said that he obtained a decree from the late Empress Anko (who was his sister), which stipulated that the succession to the Chancellor position among the family brothers must follow the order of seniority and the *Tushu* sequence. Thus, Emperor Enryo appointed Fujiwara no Kanetaka as the Minister of State and Chancellor, entrusting him with all matters of state.
Turning to speak of "New Emperor" Taira no Kiyomori, although he essentially occupied the lands of the eight provinces of Kanto, his rule was not stable. Rebellions erupted everywhere, and the smoke of war billowed, leaving him preoccupied with quelling uprisings and unable to continue expanding his territory, let alone march on the capital to completely replace the imperial court. In the third year of the Tenkyo era (940 AD), Taira no Sadamori and Fujiwara no Hidesuke gathered an army of four thousand and launched a surprise attack on Taira no Kiyomori's stronghold, while at that moment, his forces were scattered, leaving him with only a little over a thousand men by his side.
In December of that year, Abe no Yoshitoki was attacked by his clansman Abe no Tomotada, who had been persuaded by Minamoto no Yoshiie, and was struck by an arrow, resulting in his death. His two sons, Abe no Sadatomo and Abe no Munetomo, took command of his troops and continued to resist the imperial forces, inflicting significant damage on Minamoto no Yoshiie at one point. Consequently, Minamoto no Yoshiie was compelled to seek assistance from the provincial governor of Dewa, and in the fifth year of Kōhei (1062), he finally received reinforcements from Kiyohara Takazane of the Seihoku region. Under the pressure of the Kiyohara forces, Abe no Sadatomo suffered successive defeats and ultimately died in battle that September, with their stronghold, Torikawa, also being captured. Thus, the "Front Nine Years' War" came to an end, although in reality, this conflict lasted a full twelve years.
The sects that flourished in Japan in the end were Pure Land, Zen, and Nichiren, which occurred after the 12th century, as the imperial government was about to yield power to the warrior government
However, within just half a day, Emperor Shōtoku's forces suffered a great defeat. Fujiwara no Yoshinaga was shot dead by an arrow (some say he committed suicide), and Taira no Tadamasa, Minamoto no Yoriie, and others were killed or captured one after another. Emperor Shōtoku fled to Ninna-ji Temple to hide, but was discovered by the emperor's forces and was exiled far away to Sanuki in Shikoku. This incident is historically known as the "Hōgen Rebellion," which marked the emergence of the rising warrior class, not only demonstrating their power in local regions but also extending their influence into the court, openly intervening in royal disputes. The era of public governance was about to end, and the era of warrior governance was about to begin.
Four years later, Empress Anzi passed away, and three years after that, Emperor Murakami also breathed his last. Prince Hirohira of the Eastern Palace ascended the throne, becoming Emperor Reizei. It is said that even before he became emperor, this monarch exhibited many bizarre behaviors, including drawing a male organ in a letter to his father—perhaps a consequence of consanguinity. However, people at the time preferred to believe that it was the vengeful spirit of Fujiwara Motokata causing trouble. They fervently prayed to deities, yet the illness of the Eastern Palace showed no signs of improvement. This Eastern Palace, having transformed into an emperor, was certainly incapable of governing the state. Consequently, Fujiwara Tadahira's eldest son, Fujiwara no Saneyori, ascended to the position of regent and initiated the "Anwa Incident" in the second year of Anwa (969), expelling his political rival Minamoto no Takaaki to Kyushu, thereby monopolizing the political power.
Having arranged everything, the Retired Emperor Sanjō peacefully passed away at the age of only forty. Prince Shōnen became Emperor Shirakawa. Shortly after Emperor Shirakawa ascended the throne, the brothers Fujiwara no Yoshitomo and Yoshitsune both passed away in succession, and Yoshitomo's eldest son, Fujiwara no Norimichi, was appointed as regent. However, the dreams of Retired Emperor Sanjō also came to naught, as Fujiwara no Yoshiko unexpectedly gave birth to a son, Prince Yoshinari. In contrast, Crown Prince Sanjō's son, Prince Sanjō, passed away due to illness. Thus, in the third year of the Eitoku era (1084), Emperor Shirakawa abdicated, forcibly removing his half-brother Prince Fuhito and elevating his own eight-year-old son, Prince Yoshinari, to the throne, who became Emperor Horikawa.
Although Fujiwara Kaneie faced treachery, he remained undaunted, for he still held a trump card in his hand. His brother Kanetomo, along with Raichu, successively sent their daughters to the palace to become consorts of Emperor Enryo, but only Kaneie's daughter, Kenko, gave birth to a son, who was granted the title of Prince of Huiren. Thus, upon the death of Fujiwara Kanetomo, the Fujiwara Kane family quickly made a comeback and soon rose to the position of Minister of the Right. Later, Emperor Enryo abdicated in favor of Prince Shizendō, who became Emperor Kazan. Emperor Kazan reigned for only two years before being deceived by the schemes of the Fujiwara Kane family, leading him to leave the palace and become a monk, thereby passing the throne to Kaneie's grandson, Prince Huiren. Prince Huiren, who later became Emperor Ichijo, ascended the throne at the tender age of seven, allowing the Fujiwara Kane family to ascend to the regency in a most dignified manner as his maternal grandfather.
Buddhism was introduced to Japan in the 6th century, and after a fierce struggle between the pro-Buddhism and anti-Buddhism factions, it ultimately established a foothold on this island nation. Gradually, the distinction between the "national gods" and the "foreign gods" disappeared, and the deities and Buddhas became closely integrated. To facilitate governance, the Japanese court consistently promoted the idea that the emperor is a descendant of the heavenly lineage, possessing divinity. The worship of the original deities held significant importance in social and political life. Consequently, Buddhism, which became intertwined with the worship of these deities, inevitably had a profound impact on social and political life. Therefore, some scholars in Japan believe that the Buddhism of the Nara period was a worldly Buddhism, a political Buddhism.
After the Hōgen Rebellion, Taira no Kiyomori rose rapidly in power, while Minamoto no Yoshiie found himself sidelined by the retired emperor, leading to feelings of resentment. In December of the first year of the Heiji era (1159), taking advantage of Taira no Kiyomori's departure from the capital to Kumano, Minamoto no Yoshiie raised an army in rebellion, imprisoning the retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa and killing his favored minister, Fujiwara no Nobusuke, who was close to Kiyomori. Upon hearing of the upheaval during his journey, Taira no Kiyomori hurriedly returned to the capital, gathering a large force at his residence in Rokuhara, Kyoto, planning to reclaim the emperor and the retired emperor. A great battle was imminent
The Rebellion of Taira no Masakado and the Rebellion of Fujiwara no Sumitomo are collectively referred to as the "Shōhei and Tenkyō Rebellions." According to legend, the two uprisings were mutually supportive, as the two leaders had secretly agreed to expand their influence, one in the east and the other in the west, and then simultaneously march towards the capital, dividing Japan equally once successful. Regardless of the truth of this legend, it posed a significant crisis for the Heian court, which found itself besieged from both sides. At that time, the court had almost no troops available and could only offer titles and promises, relying on local warrior bands to suppress the rebellions of other local warrior bands. Thus, although these two uprisings were ultimately quelled, the power of the samurai did not diminish; rather, it expanded even further.
On one hand, whether it is the court or the regent family, their corrupt and extravagant lifestyle shows no signs of restraint; instead, it becomes increasingly rampant, with the number of estates under their name growing day by day. The common people in the capital suffer under heavy tribute and tax burdens, and their petitions for relief are incessant, leading to a continuous rise in "banditry." On the other hand, in order to counterbalance the power of the regent family, the court increasingly relied on the "warriors from the north," ultimately resulting in the "Hōgen Rebellion" of 1156.