Land Distribution in Rural Areas during the Republic of China - Excerpt from the "Xunwu Investigation Report"

They have a great obsession with money; stinginess is their characteristic, and making a fortune is their central idea. They work tirelessly throughout the day. Their grain production often exceeds their needs, and many do not sell the grain directly but instead process it into rice, which they then carry to the large market or even to places like Bachi in Pingyuan to sell, hoping to earn a few extra coins. They also engage in usury, with many charging "plus five" (that is, fifty percent) interest. They lend out grain, oppressing the poor with the principle of "upper tier measures capital, lower tier measures profit" (upper and lower tiers refer to summer and winter harvests). They also engage in practices known as "collecting grain money" and "collecting oil money." What does collecting grain money mean? It refers to the practice of lending money to farmers during the off-season, and when harvest time comes, the farmers repay the debt with grain. For instance, if they lend two coins, they expect to receive a load of grain in return at harvest time, when the grain price often reaches four coins per load, which constitutes a form of exorbitant profit. Collecting oil money operates similarly, often resulting in similar exorbitant profits. Almost all high-interest lending is associated with this new class of wealthy individuals.

1. This is the land allocation data listed in the report by Old Mao

Another form is usury, as Comrade Mao mentioned in his report

The first is "Zuo Meat," which was traditionally distributed to those who had achieved scholarly titles such as Xiucai or Juren, and later included "Graduates".

2. Attitude towards Production

There are not many roads, and there are even fewer fields; the entire county has only a little over ten (more than fifteen is referred to as a little over ten) roads, each collecting only seven or eight stones of grain. Why are bridges flourishing while roads are declining? This is because roads can be easily repaired when they are damaged, and even if they are not repaired, they are still passable for people; bridges, however, are different.

The third group consists of the most impoverished tenant farmers. They also lack land; although they possess plows and harrows, these are mostly worn out. They may have some capital, but it is very limited. A significant characteristic of theirs is that not every household owns an ox; rather, several households share a single ox, or they may have one ox that does not belong to them but is provided by the landlord to save on feeding costs. They can only use the labor of this ox under certain conditions, which is what is referred to in Xunwu as "only able to secure a claw's worth." Another major characteristic is that not every household owns an ox; they share one among several households, or they may have one that is not their own, but is given to them by the landlord for feeding, allowing them to use its labor only under specific conditions, which is what is meant by "only able to secure a claw's worth." The degree of food insufficiency in this class is more severe than in the two aforementioned classes. They account for 10.5% of the rural population and 15% of the impoverished farmers, representing a number equivalent to that of semi-subsistence farmers.

The total area of land for education accounts for 4 percent of all land and 10 percent of all public land

It appears that what was most lacking in the rural areas at that time was not a fair land system, but rather a financial system

Wealthy farmers (those with surplus money and rice to lend) account for four percent

Ancestral landowners

3. Analyzing the main means of exploitation in rural areas at that time, it was primarily through two methods: land rent and usury

On one hand, there are the funeral expenses incurred after his death, and on the other hand, his impoverished descendants receive assistance, which is referred to as "leaving a way out." His descendants also support this approach, as it essentially provides a safety net for themselves

Order of distribution: first distribute the tender meat, then the meat from the elderly, as these two types of individuals are precious. Each person will receive approximately one pound. Next, distribute the meat from the hindquarters, with each hindquarter weighing between eight to ten pounds, and some weighing over twenty pounds. The whole pieces will be distributed first, followed by the smaller portions among the others.

In terms of the divine path (gods, altars, shrines, temples, monasteries, and observatories), public land accounts for 8% of the total land and 20% of all public land

All of the above aligns with the semi-landlord rich peasants and differs from the self-sufficient middle peasants. Therefore, once the land struggle develops into mass action, a large number of poor peasants will chant slogans such as "Equal Fields" and "Complete Abolition of Debts," which are directed against these rich peasants. If the Communist Party wishes to prevent the actions of the poor peasants, then the poor peasants will inevitably harbor resentment towards the Communist Party. Thus, it is evident that not only is it unquestionable to overthrow the semi-landlord rich peasants, but also to equalize the lands of the wealthy self-sufficient farmers, abolish the debts of the wealthy self-sufficient farmers, and distribute the grains of the wealthy self-sufficient farmers. If the Communist Party wishes to prevent the actions of the poor peasants, then the poor peasants will inevitably harbor resentment towards the Communist Party. Therefore, it is clear that not only is it unquestionable to overthrow the semi-landlord rich peasants, but also to equalize the lands of the wealthy self-sufficient farmers, abolish the debts of the wealthy self-sufficient farmers, and distribute the grains of the wealthy self-sufficient farmers. This must be done in order to win over the vast masses of poor peasants. This is one of the important strategies of rural struggle. Only opportunists of the rich peasant line would stand against this strategy.

The nature of the temple is what is referred to as "if it benefits the people, then it is worshipped." The altar is needed by the landlords, the community altar is needed by the farmers, and the temple is jointly needed by both landlords and farmers. The land owned by the temple is minimal, and the rent collected is insufficient to cover the costs of incense and the temple elder, thus it is not a site of severe exploitation. In contrast, a "monastery" is entirely different; it is the lair of monks and a place of significant exploitation.

(5) Wealthy Peasants

The second group consists of relatively better tenant farmers. They possess oxen, have plows and harrows, and possess some working capital, yet they own no land at all. Their distinguishing feature is the possession of oxen; most have one ox, while a very small number may have two or three. They are poorer than semi-subsistence farmers, meaning they are less able to secure food than semi-subsistence farmers, but they are somewhat better off than other segments of the impoverished peasantry. This class accounts for 42% of the total rural population and 60% of the impoverished peasant population, making it one of the largest groups in the countryside. They are poorer than semi-subsistence farmers, meaning they are less able to secure food than semi-subsistence farmers, but they are somewhat better off than other segments of the impoverished peasantry. This class accounts for 42% of the total rural population and 60% of the impoverished peasant population, making it one of the largest groups in the countryside

The number of small landlords (those who rent less than 200 koku) is greater. If the total number of landlords is considered to be 100, then large landlords (those who rent more than 500 koku) account for 1%, medium landlords (those who rent more than 200 koku) account for 19%, and small landlords account for 80%. The number of large landlords is very small, and they do not play a significant role in the entire county

Why is it necessary to divide the housing shares and meat? This is a form of struggle. Those with fewer people in the house advocate for the division of housing shares and meat, while those with more people oppose it and support the division of the meat from the male livestock. However, the outcome in most places has been to follow the opinion of the smaller number of residents in the house regarding the division of housing shares and meat.

The third group embodies a completely feudal mindset and lifestyle. Their dwellings are located in remote mountainous areas, isolated from rivers and markets. They consistently aspire to restore the imperial examination system. They are entirely proponents of imperialism, seeking to overthrow democratic principles in order to regain their political leadership and reverse the deteriorating situation of the collapsing feudal economy. Their lifestyle is quite austere. At most, they sport a shaved head, with some still shaving off an inch or two from their foreheads. They are entirely proponents of imperialism, seeking to overthrow democratic principles in order to regain their political leadership and reverse the deteriorating situation of the collapsing feudal economy. Their lifestyle is quite austere. At most, they sport a shaved head, with some still shaving off an inch or two from their foreheads

E. Small Landlord

C. The Attitude of Large and Medium Landlords Towards Production

Such individuals (the third type, Eastern annotation) are said to constitute a minority among the large and medium landlords, with Mei Hongxin from Shuangqiao District (Datian) being a typical example. Among the large and medium landlord class, the new ones account for 10%, the semi-new for 70%, and the old ones for 20%. However, the term "new" refers to their movement towards capitalism, not to their revolutionary stance. The entire large and medium landlord class is counter-revolutionary. Yet, the term "new" indicates their shift towards capitalism, not their revolutionary nature. The entire large and medium landlord class is counter-revolutionary

The educational rent is collected by various surnamed landlords as a reward for the descendants of their own surnames who achieve academic success. Each surname has its own contribution. For instance, the ancient surname in Huangxiang has an educational rent of one hundred shi, while the Kwang surname in Chetou has over two hundred shi, with even the smallest contributions amounting to several tens of shi. Additionally, there is a "Salary Association" in the urban area, and each district has its own. Each district generally has a "Literary Association," which serves the same purpose of rewarding academic achievements, but it is a local form organized by several surnames or a specific area. Furthermore, a certain landlord from the ancient surname in Huangxiang (the grandfather of Gu Bai) donated one hundred shi to establish a "Zun Yutang," which rewards scholars from the entire county, representing a special form of support. Each district generally has a "Literary Association," which serves the same purpose of rewarding academic achievements, but it is a local form organized by several surnames or a specific area. Additionally, a certain landlord from the ancient surname in Huangxiang (the grandfather of Gu Bai) donated one hundred shi to establish a "Zun Yutang," which rewards scholars from the entire county, representing a special form of support.

The Four Classes Among the Poor Peasants

(1) Composition of the Rural Population

They can be divided into two categories: one is educational in nature, including examination halls, guest houses, Confucian temples, and academic rentals; the other is socially beneficial in nature, including bridge associations, road associations, and grain associations

They are under the rule of the landlord class in the overall political life, which means they are powerless. Their revolutionary demands were expressed very urgently in the early revolutionary movement, and their revolutionary activities were also very vigorous. The movement of the cooperative faction in Xunyu (i.e., the Sun Yat-sen School faction) represents this class, while the opposing movement of the New Xun faction (i.e., the Young Revolutionary Comrades Society) represents the counter-revolutionary movement of the landlord class. Why did the small landlord class accept capitalist culture, namely the revolutionary culture of civil rights, so rapidly and universally, and why were their revolutionary demands and activities so urgent and vigorous? The opposing movement of the New Xun faction (i.e., the Young Revolutionary Comrades Society) represents the counter-revolutionary movement of the landlord class. The reason the small landlord class accepted capitalist culture, namely the revolutionary culture of civil rights, so rapidly and universally, and why their revolutionary demands and activities were so urgent and vigorous, is entirely because the majority of this class has been economically eroded by capitalism and exploited by government agencies (of the large and middle landlords), leading to severe bankruptcy.

The first group is the semi-subsistence farmers. They do not have enough food because their land is insufficient. They must rent a portion of land from landlords, and after the rental period, they find themselves lacking food again. However, they are considered the best among the poor farmers, as they not only possess oxen and plows, but also have some working capital, and notably, they own a portion of land themselves. This class accounts for 10.5% of the total rural population and 15% of the entire poor farmer population. They are regarded as the best among the poor farmers, as they not only possess oxen and plows, but also have some working capital, and notably, they own a portion of land themselves. This class accounts for 10.5% of the total rural population and 15% of the entire poor farmer population.

The land rent is generally split fifty-fifty, regardless of whether it is public land, landlord land, or other types. Essentially, the main agricultural produce is divided equally between the landlord and the tenant farmer.

D. The political thought of the large and medium landowners

The Architecture Palace was also funded by local landlords, thus it was named "Hall of Good Deeds," similar to the Shangyi Shrine and the Binxing Shrine, in honor of those benefactors. Subsequently, over 1,000 yuan was donated for the expenses of worshiping Confucius, which was monetary rather than land.

In this context, those impoverished descendants often clamor for the division of communal land, while the wealthier descendants oppose such division, resulting in a form of class struggle within the clan. The impoverished individuals demanding the division of communal land are not seeking to cultivate it; rather, they wish to sell it in order to obtain money to repay high-interest debts or to buy rice for tomorrow's breakfast. In this situation, it is evident that the poor peasant masses, suffering from the lack of rice to cook, gradually abandon feudal ideologies such as "rituals of mourning" and "reverence for ancestors." Their dire circumstances compel them to forsake these precious beliefs.

What is meant by the term "poor peasant"? We can simply answer: those who do not have enough food are called poor peasants (the reason for their lack of food is exploitation, which goes without saying). However, this is a general statement. If we delve deeper into the category of poor peasants, we will find that they do not constitute a completely homogeneous class with the same economic status; rather, there are four distinct strata within this group.

Below is an excerpt from Mao Zedong's report "Investigation of Xunwu"

Third is "elderly meat", with each person aged seventy and above receiving one portion

When his ancestor was still alive and dividing the family estate among his sons, in order to prevent his descendants from selling off even a small portion of the land and ending up without food to eat, he excavated a portion of the land and designated it as public land, which would never be sold.

At that time, land rent was somewhat akin to the current real estate speculation. In real estate speculation, an individual can earn several million or even tens of millions each year, whereas running a factory not only presents challenges in business but also requires considerable effort. In such circumstances, just as many capitalists flocked to invest in real estate, during the Republic of China period, with land rents being so high, who would be willing to invest capital in the development of industry?

The deities of the local land include six types: gods, altars, shrines, temples, monasteries, and observatories. "God" refers to various deities, many of which have associations, such as the Zhao Gong Association, Guanyin Association, Guan Yu Association, Da Shen Association, Zhen Jun Association, Po Tai Association, Lai Ye Association, Gong Wang Association, Bo Gong Association, and Wen Chang Association, among others, which do not have temples. There is also a type of ritual association for the purpose of praying to the gods, which falls into this category. Among the various deities mentioned, some have established "altars." An altar is created by erecting a stone, and in some cases, several stones are stacked to form a small shelter, which houses effective and miraculous deities, hence the name altar. The Zhao Gong Association, Guanyin Association, Guan Yu Association, Da Shen Association, Zhen Jun Association, Po Tai Association, Lai Ye Association, Gong Wang Association, Bo Gong Association, and Wen Chang Association, among others, do not have temples. There is also a type of ritual association for the purpose of praying to the gods, which falls into this category. Among the various deities mentioned, some have established "altars." An altar is created by erecting a stone, and in some cases, several stones are stacked to form a small shelter, which houses effective and miraculous deities, hence the name altar.

Small landowners (those collecting rent of less than 200 shi) receive three percent

Bless the seedlings to be free from pests, and may the cattle and pigs be spared from plagues, granting health to the people. Each community holds meetings from February to October, convening every month, typically on the second day of the lunar month, though in some places it is on the sixteenth. On the day of the meeting, each household in the community sends one representative, regardless of wealth, all are included. They slaughter pigs and buy wine for a grand feast. After the meal, they gather to discuss matters, such as building dikes and opening irrigation channels, prohibiting livestock from harming the seedlings, and forbidding the indiscriminate cutting of forests and bamboo. The rules vary, discussions abound, yet there is no designated chairman, nor is there any record kept. On the day of the meeting, each household in the community sends one representative, regardless of wealth, all are included. They slaughter pigs and buy wine for a grand feast. After the meal, they gather to discuss matters, such as building dikes and opening irrigation channels, prohibiting livestock from harming the seedlings, and forbidding the indiscriminate cutting of forests and bamboo. The rules vary, discussions abound, yet there is no designated chairman, nor is there any record kept. Although the discussions may seem chaotic, there exists a natural order.

The first type is new, having been significantly influenced by capitalism. Their lives are relatively luxurious. They are quite liberal with money, eager to purchase all sorts of foreign goods, wearing tattered clothing and donning foreign-style attire. They are also quite enthusiastic about sending their children to school, or they themselves are graduates of secondary schools or similar institutions. Such individuals are relatively rare among the landlord class, and they tend to be found near rivers and markets; most of them are also engaged in business. Wang Juyuan from Chengjiang is a good example.

(1) There are many individuals engaged in small businesses. They open small grocery stores, purchasing inexpensive agricultural products and selling them at higher prices when the market allows. It is estimated that among every hundred small landowners, about ten are involved in such small trades. Although medium landowners also engage in business, and when they do, they tend to operate on a larger scale than small landowners, their involvement in commerce is relatively minimal. In fact, medium landowners mostly continue to live within a feudal economic framework, which makes them less commercialized compared to small landowners.

(6) Poor Peasants

Recently, the East has been studying the agricultural conditions of the Republic of China, examining multiple agricultural survey reports by Lao Mao and studying Fei Xiaotong's "Jiangcun Economy". The data is shocking and thought-provoking.

The Binxing Shrine has branches in each fortress that manage the land holdings. The purpose of the land holdings is to serve as travel expenses for the provincial and national examinations, as well as rewards for those who have achieved the status of juren or jinshi (primarily for travel expenses and rewards for the provincial examination). The rewards are colloquially referred to as "hua hong." The county Binxing Shrine can collect an annual rent of approximately 1,500 to 600 stones of grain.

Medium landlords who collect rents of over 200 shi and large landlords who collect rents of over 500 shi are completely indifferent to production. They neither engage in labor themselves nor organize production, solely focusing on rent collection. Certainly, each large and medium landlord cultivates a small amount of land, but their aim is not to improve production methods or enhance productivity; they do not seek wealth through this. Instead, it is merely to avoid wasting the accumulated manure and straw from livestock, and to prevent hired workers from becoming idle. Thus, they choose to cultivate the most fertile parts of their land, typically growing only about 10 to 20 shi of grain, with very few cultivating 40 to 50 shi. Generally, these landlords employ only one worker, and only those large landlords with over 10,000 households and few family members might hire two workers. To prevent workers from becoming idle, aside from miscellaneous tasks, they are also required to cultivate a bit of land.

The grain associations are few, with only a handful in the entire county, such as the Yan family in Huangxiang, the Mei family in Datian, the Kuang family in Chetou, and the Liu family in Jitan Zhenxia, each having one and some land. The Kuang family in Chetou has the most, with five hundred stones of rented land, originally designated as "military land," now used for grain associations. The role of the grain association is to replace the clan members in fulfilling grain quotas and to resist the government's pressure on each household within the clan to provide grain. With various parties extracting resources, it is disadvantageous for everyone, hence the establishment of the grain association through pooled funds, or through contributions from smaller groups. The grain association's function is to replace the clan members in fulfilling grain quotas and to resist the government's pressure on each household within the clan to provide grain. With various parties extracting resources, it is disadvantageous for everyone, hence the establishment of the grain association through pooled funds, or through contributions from smaller groups. With a grain association in place, the law enforcement only needs to approach the association, sparing each household from suffering. What if there is no grain association? When law enforcement arrives, the costs of foot soldiers exceed the grain costs, and if the quotas are not met within the deadline, interest will be calculated, which is exceedingly heavy, thus prompting the establishment of a grain association. The initial funds for the grain association are not substantial, but they accumulate year by year through interest.

Thirty percent of farmers

These so-called relatively affluent self-sufficient farmers or middle peasants, many do not advocate for their being targeted in struggles, reasoning that they do not possess the characteristics of landlords, as all their production comes from their own labor rather than the exploitation of others. However, from the perspective of the poor peasants, they still represent a distinct class. They do not rent out their land for others to cultivate, yet they are still usurers, as they have surplus wealth and excess land. They process their own agricultural products, such as turning millet into rice, which they then sell themselves. They also engage in small-scale buying and selling businesses. They raise pigs, piglets, or large hogs.

Fourth is "Ding meat", one portion for each man

The life of large and medium landlords can be categorized into three situations based on the conditions in Xunwu

Firstly, there are surplus individuals in the year, accounting for 0.96% of the total number of the landlord class, and they are counter-revolutionary in the struggle. Liu Hongxiang, Lai Shifang, and Liu Ruibiao from the civilian cooperative faction belong to this class. They are all members of the cooperative, and during the 325 uprising and after its failure, they gradually exhibited counter-revolutionary behavior

The total area of land dedicated to public welfare accounts for 4 percent of all land and 10 percent of all public land

The total land related to the divine path (gods, altars, societies, temples, monasteries, and observatories) accounts for 8 percent of all land and 20 percent of all public land

Public land (including political, academic, and road land) accounts for 4% of the total land and 10% of the total public land

For this reason, we must also list the middle landlords, although there are too many small landlords to enumerate conveniently. The distinction of middle landlords within the landlord class is important because their political role is significantly different not only from that of small landlords but also evidently distinct from that of large landlords.

One percent of the unemployed.

The percentage of smallholder farmers (those who have enough food and do not incur debt) is 18.255

manual workers (various craftsmen, boatmen

It appears that in old China, this method of exploitation was indeed excessively severe. Such high land rents not only exploited the common people but also led landlords to focus solely on the frenzied acquisition of land, rarely considering other matters. These exorbitant land rents severely hindered the development of capitalism in China

As for the land associated with public welfare bridge associations, road associations, and grain associations, there are quite a few. Not only do large and long bridges have associations, but even small village bridges often have them as well. Where there are associations, there is land, all of which is donated by landlords and merchants, with the purpose of repairing bridges. Initially, the funds are small, but over the years, debts accumulate into a significant amount, which is then used to purchase land. Every December, accounts are settled and offerings are made to the bridge deity, referred to as "holding a bridge association." The donors come together for a meal, and after eating, they also distribute pork, thus making the bridge association a mechanism of exploitation. The larger associations can amount to 8,000 yuan, with land generating an annual rental income of 500 shi, which serves as a floating bridge for vehicles. Smaller associations may only have a rental income of two to three shi, corresponding to very small bridges.

The percentage of hired laborers (both long-term workers and those engaged in specialized odd jobs) is 0.3 percent

C.m.hetushu.com.com Political Landlord

The interest rate of 3% is at least the ordinary rate, accounting for 70%. An additional 4% accounts for 10%, and an additional 5% accounts for 20%. Consider this: 3% translates to 30%, meaning if you borrow 100 yuan, you will incur an interest of 30% in one year, compounded, which is quite alarming.

(2) Distribution of the old farmland

Seventy percent of the poor farmers (those who lack food and are in debt)

The small landlords mentioned above do not refer to all small landlords, but only to a portion of them. The term "small landlords" generally encompasses two components.

Regardless of the deity or the altar, every assembly has communal land, and those who finance such religious gatherings are all wealthy farmers and landlords. Ninety-five percent of the assets of these religious assemblies consist of land, while five percent comprises grains and money. This land, grain, and money are referred to as "the foundation of the assembly"

Newly issued accounts 2 percent

When is the division? And what kind of division is it? It refers to the distribution of grain and meat from the ancestral hall during the festive seasons.

Below are some summaries of the investigation report on Old Mao by the East

In the report, the interest rates for medium and large landowners are relatively low, while the interest rates for small landowners and wealthy farmers are extremely high

If the ancestors did not establish a memorial during their lifetime, after their passing, the descendants, as long as they are somewhat affluent, will inevitably set up a memorial for them, a practice known as ancestor worship, which is actually for their own benefit. Thus, the practice of taking turns to collect rent is ostensibly to collect rent on behalf of the ancestors, but in reality, it is to collect rent for themselves.

Why do the minority triumph over the majority? This is because such public industries originally had equal rights for each household. The distribution of meat is not shared by every household; the majority do not receive any meat. This is due to the limited public funds or the excessive number of people involved. In some cases, the public meat is not evenly distributed but rather allocated in turns, a practice referred to as "turn collection" or "management head," meaning that it is collected in rotation on behalf of the ancestors. After the rent is collected, a small portion is spent annually on ancestral sacrifices, while the majority ends up in the pockets of the management head. This is not considered "eating oil cakes," as this practice is fundamentally the reason for the existence of public economic systems. Why is this the case?

Speaking of "temples," a temple consists of a building that houses deities. Each temple has a caretaker, commonly referred to as the "temple elder," who is an old man serving the deities and managing the incense and lamps. Temples often have associated lands, though some do not. For those with land, the temple elder receives rent from the temple land; for those without, the elder's sustenance is funded through donations of grain from the community. There are various types of temples, including City God Temples, Guan Di Temples, Three Officials Temples, Three Saints Palaces, Lai Lao Temples, Dragon King Temples, Guan Yue Temples, Yang Gong Temples, East Mountain Temples, and Jiangdong Temples, among others.

This class is engaged in an activity characterized by a "new atmosphere of innovation." Their economic situation involves cultivating their own land (with very few long-term laborers hired and many short-term workers employed), while also renting out their barren and thin land to others for cultivation, from whom they collect rent in kind

Apart from the expenses for ancestral worship, there is generally a surplus, which is then saved. The method of saving is not by storing grain, but by saving money, which means selling the surplus grain to the poor each year and accumulating the money. After several years, this accumulation becomes a substantial amount, which is then used to purchase land. In this way, the area of land gradually increases.

Such high interest rates, just like the current speculation in real estate, who would be willing to develop the real economy

B. The deity of the land.

(2) Another notable aspect of the commercialization of the small landowners is their practice of sending their children to school. Almost all children of small landowners attend primary schools, and nearly all also enter higher primary schools, with at least eight out of ten families participating. Furthermore, three out of ten families send their children to secondary schools. This class is adopting new cultural trends more rapidly and widely than any other class.

The second type is somewhat new yet not entirely so. They advocate for a bit of "newness," but immediately criticize the drawbacks of the "new." They also run schools and serve as education directors, but the schools they manage are authoritarian and corrupt. Their role as education directors is to gain a certain power and to acquire some money, rather than for the purpose of "enlightening the public mind and revitalizing education." Historically, most education directors have been from their ranks, as the first type is too new to take on such roles. Their lifestyle oscillates between frugality and luxury. They constitute the majority among the large and medium landlords. Conservatism is the nature of landlords; why then do these second types adopt a somewhat new yet not entirely so stance in response to the times? It is entirely for the sake of vying for leadership. If they do not do so, the leadership will be completely seized by the proponents of civil rights, the so-called "new school." Therefore, they find it necessary to transform themselves. However, due to their economic relations still being in a state of feudal exploitation, they continue to fully exhibit landlord characteristics, and such reform is merely superficial. Qiu Weiwu from the urban area, Pan Yiren from District 3, and Xie Jiayou from Chengjiang District are typical examples of this class.

The landlords are the center of power in the entire county, and many of their offspring attend secondary schools. The county's political power, such as the finance bureau, education bureau, and security corps, is largely controlled by them. Particularly, the expenses for ancestral halls are almost entirely in their hands, making it very difficult for small landlords and wealthy farmers to intervene. However, small landlords constitute an absolute majority within the landlord class and exhibit the following characteristics:

Having discussed the land held by public landlords, we now turn to the land held by private landlords. Private landlord land accounts for thirty percent of the total land, which is less than that of public landlords. Among private landlord land, small landlords (those who collect less than 200 shi in rent) constitute the majority, followed by medium landlords (those who collect between 200 and 500 shi in rent), while large landlords (those who collect more than 500 shi in rent) hold the least amount of land. Among private landlord land, small landlords (those who collect less than 200 shi in rent) constitute the majority, followed by medium landlords (those who collect between 200 and 500 shi in rent), while large landlords (those who collect more than 500 shi in rent) hold the least amount of land.

The total land related to ancestors accounts for 24 percent of all land and 60 percent of all public fields

However, this increase in savings only accounts for a portion of the total funds, while another portion is distributed equally among his descendants. Generally, it is the poorer descendants who advocate for the division, while those who are affluent tend not to support it

Special porters: 3 percent

The provincial examination is held once every three years, occurring in the years of the Rat, Horse, Rabbit, and Rooster. Each session typically sees over one hundred candidates from Xunwu, with each person's travel expenses amounting to twenty-four yuan, and those who pass the examination receive over one hundred yuan in rewards.

The report indicates that the investigation conducted by Lao Mao is very detailed, listing the attitudes of landlords in various districts towards the revolution and their rent collection status. The East finds this too complex and has only retained the South Eight District for further examination. In Xunwu County, there are a total of one hundred and thirteen middle landlords across the seven districts of the county

Secondly, regarding food, there is a meal on the day of the deity's birthday, and during festivals, there are also portions of meat. However, only those who have contributed to the communal fund are entitled to eat and receive their share. Those who have contributed but later fell into poverty have a way to withdraw their share; for example, if each share is worth five yuan, someone can pay five yuan to 'withdraw' their share, thus they are considered to have 'retired' from the contribution. The 'She' is a different kind of altar from the 'Shentan' (deity altar), and every village has one. Even if a village has only three families, there is still a She altar. Why is there a She altar?

The establishment of public fields in Xunwu has become a common phenomenon across various districts. Numerous associations exist, with ancestral halls hosting various "public" organizations. Almost every deceased individual, as long as they have descendants who are wealthy, will have their so-called heirs contribute a portion of their family estate to establish a public entity in their name. This method of pooling resources to create a public entity is widely adopted by all surnames. The contributions are generally in the form of land, without the need for cash. Furthermore, while the individual was still alive, they would often set aside land to establish a public entity, which is even more prevalent than the previous method. Once a public field is established, it generates rental income year after year

The term "small landlord" generally refers to a significant class that accounts for 48% of all landlords, aside from the aforementioned old tax households. This class, known as the "newly affluent class," has origins that are precisely the opposite of those who have fallen from the old tax households; it is composed of farmers who have become wealthy through hard work or those who have prospered through small-scale commerce

Large and medium landlords are generally indifferent to production, while small landlords are more frugal and exhibit great enthusiasm for production. If land reform is to be implemented in rural areas, the greatest difficulty lies in the management of public lands, with significant challenges arising from individual landlords, particularly small landlords and wealthy farmers.

One percent of the impoverished households

One segment is inherited from the so-called old taxpayers, and this segment primarily originates from the division of the estates of large and medium landlords, referred to as "large shares divided into small shares," meaning that large and medium landlords divide their holdings into many smaller landlords. This segment accounts for thirty-two percent of the entire landlord class. Based on their economic status, there are three distinct categories:

The public farmland accounts for 24 percent of the total land and 60 percent of the total public farmland

The landlord is thirty percent

The second group represents a year that is worse than the previous one, and they must gradually sell their land to sustain their livelihoods, often revealing a bleak future. This segment comprises a significant number of individuals, accounting for 22.4% of the entire landlord class. They possess a strong revolutionary fervor, with most members of the Xunwu Civilian Cooperative being from this stratum. Notable deceased leaders of the struggle include Pan Li (the Communist County Committee Secretary), Liu Weilu (Chairman of the Revolutionary Committee during the 325 Uprising), and Liu Weike (a member of the Communist District Committee). Current leaders of the struggle include Gu Bo (the Communist County Committee Secretary), Zhong Xiqiu (Red Army Camp Commander), and Huang Yuguo (the Communist District Committee Secretary), among others. Additionally, those who joined the revolution after not participating in the cooperative, such as Mei Ruhuang (Political Commissioner of the Red Army Brigade), also belong to this class.

The fourth group is the poorest among the tenant farmers. In addition to lacking land, they also have no capital at all, and it is common for them to borrow rice and salt. They have no draft animals, and during busy farming seasons, they wait for others to plow the fields before borrowing or renting oxen from relatives or family members to cultivate the few acres of poor land they have rented at high rates. Although they possess plows, they do not have harrows, as a single iron harrow costs a considerable amount of money, which they cannot afford. This class constitutes 7% of the rural population and 10% of the poor farmers, representing a significant group. Their clothing is very tattered, and they often have to beg. Their meals consist of two meals of coarse grains (such as millet and sweet potato slices) a day. They supplement their livelihood by selling rice cakes, firewood, and carrying loads.

B. Landlord.

Forty percent of the public land

(3) Public Landlord

There are four items related to meat

Everyone, please think again about what kind of industry can guarantee a steady profit of 30% each year. However, at that time, lending to poor farmers at high interest rates reached 30%, 40%, and even 50%. Such rates are excessively high

The property of temples is all donated by large landowners, referred to as "donors". Why do these large landowners donate land to monks? Because Buddhism is a religion utilized by the large landowning class, and in order to "cultivate their descendants and themselves", they donate land to monks. Wufu An, Huilong Temple, Zhengjue Temple, Guanyin Pavilion, Dongbi Mountain, Dabeige, Ehu An, Xizhu Mountain, Tiantai Mountain, Lion Rock, Sanjiao Dong, Jiao Gong Rock, Fahua An, Xihua Mountain, Nanyang Mountain, Fanhui Temple, Ganlu Temple, and Jiulong Mountain are all temples for monks located near the urban area. The Daoist priests' offerings are called "Guans", which include Yungai Dong, Dashanli, and Chuantang Keng, among others. The source of the land and the conditions of exploitation for the Guans are no different from those of the temples.

When the so-called "senior elder" or the so-called "more understanding" person speaks in a "more just" manner, everyone praises their words as "well said," and thus a resolution is formed. This type of society is communal; although it believes in deities, it is entirely different from the altars of landlords and wealthy farmers. In this society, the meetings are led by the farmers, not by the gentry, nor solely by the wealthy farmers. It is the words of those who are regarded as "more just" that are believed by everyone, and this person becomes the invisible chairperson. The society has a public hall at the very least, and most meetings are held on the second day of each month (to pay respect to the deities), during which everyone contributes money, with each person donating twenty, thirty, or forty cents each time; those who do not attend do not contribute.

Large landowners (those collecting rents of over 500 shi) are subject to a rate of 0.045 percent

A large landowner

For landowners (collecting rent between 200 and 500 shi), the rate is 0.4 percent

"Nowadays, people are more greedy," this sentiment is heard everywhere among the impoverished masses of Xunwu. These newly wealthy individuals value money greatly and are even less willing to spend it on sending their children to school. As a result, there are very few middle school students among them, and while there are some primary school students, they are significantly fewer than those from the declining gentry class.

The third group consists of those who are more severely affected by bankruptcy and rely on debt to sustain their lives. This group accounts for 8.64% of all landlords, and they are also revolutionary, with many participating in the current struggles in Xunwu. The aforementioned so-called old tax-paying small landlords who have fallen into decline generally belong to the second and third groups, both of which are largely involved in the revolution. Among the cooperative members, there are thirty middle school students and one hundred primary school students or teachers, all of whom have participated in the revolution in the past or present, belonging to these two groups of declining small landlord class, particularly the second group being especially numerous. Among the cooperative members, there are thirty middle school students and one hundred primary school students or teachers, all of whom have participated in the revolution in the past or present, belonging to these two groups of declining small landlord class, particularly the second group being especially numerous

There is another type of relatively affluent farmer, commonly referred to as self-cultivating farmers or middle peasants, who are essentially a form of wealthy peasants. The previously mentioned "semi-landlord type of wealthy peasants" are not called wealthy peasants but rather small landlords. The impoverished peasant masses hold this perspective.

Within the Binxing Shrine, there are over a hundred wooden plaques inscribed with the names of wealthy benefactors. After the abolition of the imperial examination system, each graduate from the Second Normal School in Ganzhou was granted a visiting fee of 30 yuan to facilitate their visits to the Jiangsu and Zhejiang regions. Additionally, there was a subsidy for students studying abroad; one student studying in Japan received 360 yuan. The funds for establishing a simple normal school and a higher primary school in the county town were sourced from the finances of the Binxing Shrine.

In order to ensure the objectivity and fairness of the argument, the East now presents some data from Lao Mao's "Investigation Report on Xunwu" for everyone's mutual encouragement

The origin of Binxing Field is also attributed to the donations made by landlords. The fields are scattered across various forts in the county, and most are still managed by the original overseers, who annually deliver fifty percent of the harvest to the Binxing Shrine in the county town

There is another situation that needs to be explained, which is the distinction between the old and new among the landlord class, not only formed by geographical reasons (such as rivers and mountains, proximity to markets and distance from them) but also by age-related factors. In a family, the elderly tend to be conservative, the youth tend to advocate for reform, while the middle-aged are often in a state of ambivalence between the old and the new. This age-related factor is essentially a reflection of the era. The elderly are most deeply influenced by the old system, and as they approach the end of their lives, they lack the capacity to embrace the new, thus they can only cling to the old. In a family, the elderly tend to be conservative, the youth tend to advocate for reform, while the middle-aged are often in a state of ambivalence between the old and the new. This age-related factor is essentially a reflection of the era. The elderly are most deeply influenced by the old system, and as they approach the end of their lives, they lack the capacity to embrace the new, thus they can only cling to the old. The youth are less influenced by the old system and, recognizing that there is no future without reform, tend to be less stubborn. The middle-aged find themselves caught between the two. For example, the large landlord known as "Shigang Bogong" is very stubborn. His son advocates for establishing a school, but the school that is set up is only partially new and partially old. His grandson, however, goes to Guangzhou, Shanghai, Beijing, and even the UK, with six or seven of them studying abroad to explore what is called "new learning." Nevertheless, regardless of how they study new learning, it remains fundamentally counter-revolutionary. "Shigang Bogong"'s grandson, Pan Zuoqin, graduated from medical school in the UK and is now practicing medicine in Shantou, recognized as the second-best Western doctor in Shantou, earning forty to fifty yuan daily, and over a thousand yuan monthly. When he first returned to the country, he was offered twelve hundred yuan a year by the Xunwu Church Hospital, but he declined because his income in Shantou was even greater. "Shigang Bogong"'s grandson, Pan Zuoqin, graduated from medical school in the UK and is now practicing medicine in Shantou, recognized as the second-best Western doctor in Shantou, earning forty to fifty yuan daily, and over a thousand yuan monthly. When he first returned to the country, he was offered twelve hundred yuan a year by the Xunwu Church Hospital, but he declined because his income in Shantou was even greater

The purpose is twofold: firstly, for the divine, as the divine can bless them with peace for both people and livestock, and prosperity in wealth and offspring

(4) Individual Landlord

The second is "house stock meat", one portion per house

As for why the impoverished class sends more individuals to school, it is because they have a clearer understanding of money (since it is not earned through their own efforts). Moreover, apart from relying on education to acquire skills, they have no other means to revive their family fortunes, which is why many graduates emerge from this class. The so-called new small landlords mentioned above are referred to by some as wealthy peasants, specifically termed "semi-landlord wealthy peasants." This semi-landlord wealthy peasant class is the most detrimental enemy class in rural areas, and from the perspective of the impoverished peasants, there is no reason not to overthrow them.

The rental income from the examination fields in the county town amounted to six hundred and fifty stones. The wealthy gentry involved, referred to as "eating oil cakes," took away one hundred and eighty stones, leaving four hundred and seventy stones to be handed over to the examination fields. The origin of the examination fields dates back to the Qing Dynasty when the examination hall was constructed. A large landlord donated a significant amount of grain, and the remaining funds from the construction were used to purchase land, serving as the annual maintenance fund for the examination hall. A "Shangyi Shrine" was established, with the names of the donating landlords inscribed on a wooden plaque, where those who donated more were placed higher and those who donated less were placed lower.

4. Due to such high rents and usury, ordinary people find it difficult to repay. Generally, they resort to selling their wives and children (which means selling their family members to the landlords) or selling their sons. (Note from the author: In the 1980s, a phenomenon of selling sons appeared in my hometown. One family, after the husband died, had four sons but could not support them all, so they sold the youngest son to Shandong. This is something I witnessed personally; the boy sold was named Chen Sihe, one of my childhood playmates. It seems that selling sons and daughters is not exclusive to the Republic of China.) They also resort to other means to survive.

Men are allocated shares, while women do not receive any shares (though in some ethnic groups, widows do receive shares). Each person is allotted a certain number of dou of grain and a certain number of jin of meat. This type of grain is referred to as "Hong Ding Gu."

At that time, the land distribution in the rural areas of Xunwu County was as follows: 40% was public land, 30% was owned by individual landlords, and 30% was owned by wealthy farmers and self-cultivating farmers

Large landlords and medium landlords also lend at an interest rate of three percent or five percent, which is quite rare. There is virtually no money made from collecting grain or oil. There is an even more severe practice known as "monthly increase of one percent," where the interest paid monthly is ten percent, resulting in a doubling of the amount owed in a year. Such loans require collateral and often involve a form of association, such as a "contractual society." There is also the "stamp society," which charges a monthly increase of one percent, compounding interest on interest, making it even more severe than the contractual society. These practices are less common among large and medium landlords. During the Qing Dynasty, the prevalence of usurious lending was relatively low, but since the Republic of China, such lending has gradually increased. The "stamp society" charges a monthly increase of one percent, compounding interest on interest, making it even more severe than the contractual society. These practices are less common among large and medium landlords. During the Qing Dynasty, the prevalence of usurious lending was relatively low, but since the Republic of China, such lending has gradually increased. "People's greed has grown stronger now," is a historically significant commentary on the poor's relationship with usurers.

The struggle between these two classes (small landlords and large and medium landlords) leads to the conflict between the peasant class and the landlord class. The new faction representing the medium landlords, which somewhat carries a capitalist inclination, increasingly compromises with the large landlords to form a counter-revolutionary front. Meanwhile, the cooperative faction representing the small landlords, which embodies revolutionary democratic tendencies, increasingly accepts the guidance of proletarian consciousness and unites with the impoverished class, thereby forming the recent land revolution struggle. The cooperative faction representing the small landlords, which embodies revolutionary democratic tendencies, increasingly accepts the guidance of proletarian consciousness and unites with the impoverished class, thereby forming the recent land revolution struggle.