Related to the work

This law clearly inherited from the Tang Dynasty can be traced back to the legal text "Those who have committed offenses, resulting in death or accidental killing, shall not be held accountable" found in Volume 22 of the "Tang Code and Commentary". However, the penalties in the Tang Dynasty were lighter compared to those stipulated in the Han Dynasty. The master punishing a slave to death does not require the payment of ransom and bears minimal responsibility.

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5 "Bamboo Slips from the Zhangjiashan Han Tomb (Tomb No. 247)": "Interpretation and Annotation of the Legal Code of the Second Year", Page 138

It also reflects his power to possess slaves. The large slave, Sun Cheng, has a formal name and owns property, which is clearly distinct from the status of those powerless slaves who are at the mercy of their masters. Furthermore, the well-known Han Dynasty text "Wang Bao's Slave Contract" illustrates that, although it is a playful piece of writing, it nonetheless reflects a certain contractual relationship between slaves and their masters. This indicates that slaves are not entirely devoid of responsibility.

How can it be explained that the 1.1 billion Han people in the north and south all share a common paternal lineage while exhibiting significant maternal differences? The answer is quite simple. Consider the situation in the 1950s when people from the mainland migrated to Lhasa. At that time, the regulations stipulated that only military officers at the regiment level and above, as well as local officials at the department level and above, could bring their families. Young soldiers and workers, unable to bring their families, married local Tibetan women. Today, there are a large number of Han-Tibetan mixed-race individuals in Lhasa, Shigatse, and other areas, all of whom have Han fathers and Tibetan mothers. This is the reason behind it.

3 "Bamboo Slips from the Zhangjiashan Han Tomb (Tomb No. 247)": "Interpretation and Annotation of the Legal Code of the Second Year", page 158

True national integration began only after the establishment of the new China. As for the present-day Manchu compatriots, it is likely that very few are descendants of the Manchus; the vast majority possess pure Han bloodlines, as their ancestors were part of the Han Eight Banners. Only when these Manchu compatriots, who are essentially Han, acknowledge their ancestry and return to their roots will it signify the revival of our great Han. Ultimately, we will once again raise a middle finger to the chaotic policies of the fifty-six ethnic groups, the fifty-six flowers, and abolish ethnic privileges, treating everyone equally as the rightful path.

5 "Book of the Later Han", Volume 42, "Biographies of the Eastern Ping Prince Cang"

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In this incident, Zhao Jingzhao intended to coerce Prime Minister Wei by using the death of a maid caused by Wei's wife, thereby achieving his goal of revenge against the Prime Minister. It appears that Wei's wife did indeed cause the death of the maid, but the critical issue lies in whether it was a deliberate killing—i.e., murder—or an excessive punishment—i.e., negligent homicide. Zhao sought to charge the Prime Minister and his wife with the crime of intentional homicide of the maid. However, upon verification with other servants present, it was confirmed that the maid "was not killed with a weapon." Zhao attempted to charge the Prime Minister and his wife with the crime of intentional homicide of the maid. However, upon verification with other servants present, it was confirmed that the maid "was not killed with a weapon." Killing with a weapon implies intentional murder. The underlying implication is that if death resulted from beating or punishment, it would not constitute a crime.

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Furthermore, the "Book of Han", Volume 59, "Biography of Zhang Tang and An Shi", records: "The young man was involved with the official maid, and the maid's brother spoke out, An Shi said: 'The servant, out of anger, falsely accused the official of wearing a crown and robes.' (He) [reported] the case of the punished servant. Such hidden faults of individuals are all of this nature." This historical material reflects that the misconduct involving official maids is a crime, and thus the maid's brother dared to report it. Zhang An Shi, in order to protect the wrongdoing of the young man, reversed the truth and accused the maid's brother of false accusation. It is evident that under normal circumstances, if the servant's accusation is true, the authorities would also be obliged to accept it. In contrast, during the medieval period, servants had almost no litigation rights, and those who reported their masters for anything other than treason faced the death penalty, indicating that their status had actually declined further compared to the Han Dynasty.

The status of slaves and servants during the Han Dynasty

2 "Bamboo Slips from the Zhangjiashan Han Tomb (Tomb No. 247)": "Exegesis and Commentary on the Legal Provisions of the Second Year", page 158

Here, slaves and fields are listed together, clearly marked with prices, indicating that they are calculated as assets. The property tax levied during the Han Dynasty also included slaves. For instance, during Emperor Wu of Han's campaign against the Xiongnu, it was stated that "due to insufficient national resources, the taxes on the people's fields, houses, boats, livestock, and slaves were imposed." It is evident that slaves were indeed considered property during the Han Dynasty. The newly unearthed Zhangjiashan Han bamboo slips, titled "Household Law," stipulate: "If the people wish to first divide fields, houses, slaves, and property, the local officials shall listen to their orders, and all shall refer to the written agreements, which shall be submitted as household registrations. In case of disputes, the written agreements shall prevail; without written agreements, do not listen."

There is C3 (M217) but not its subtype C3c (M48, which is the gene of Genghis Khan, already confirmed through the determination of his descendants), making it impossible to originate from the Mongolic ethnic group

Publication No. 274 provides us with a wealth of invaluable materials for studying the conditions of slaves and servants during the Han Dynasty, particularly in conducting a comparative analysis of the status of slaves and servants between the Han and Tang Dynasties. This article will briefly analyze the similarities and differences in the status of slaves and servants in the Han Dynasty and the medieval period, especially during the Tang Dynasty, from five aspects, in conjunction with the extant literary materials from the Han and Tang Dynasties. This will further our understanding of the origins of the social hierarchy of nobility and commoners during the Han Dynasty.

"Servants and lowly people are to be treated like livestock." This is stipulated in Volume 14 of the Book of Laws, "Regulations on Household Marriage"

Next, let us popularize some knowledge: humans possess 46 chromosomes, of which 44 are autosomes, and the X and Y chromosomes are sex chromosomes. The XY combination indicates male, while the XX combination indicates female. Therefore, the Y chromosome can only be passed from father to son, and the inheritance of lineage has always been based on paternal genes.

In simple terms, the Han ethnic group has R1 but does not have its subtype R1a1 (M15), which makes it impossible for them to originate from Turkic-speaking peoples

3 "Bamboo Slips from the Zhangjiashan Han Tomb (Tomb No. 247)": "Exegesis and Commentary on the Legal Provisions of the Second Year", page 151

1 The Book of Han, Volume 25, Records of Sacrifices to the Suburbs

The upper reaches of the Yellow River represent the ancient Sino-Tibetan ethnic group (the early Qiang, characterized by the gene O3-M122). The lower reaches of the Yellow River also represent an ancient population, distinguished by the gene O1-M119. Approximately 6,000 to 5,000 years ago, the ancient ancestors of the Sino-Tibetan language family began to differentiate, with one group moving west and south, evolving into the Tibeto-Burman language family, while another group moved east, forming the Han language family. The tribes of the Han language family defeated the ancient inhabitants of the lower Yellow River, and the populations possessing M119 that were defeated began to split into two branches. The northern branch with M119 migrated into the Liao River basin, significantly influencing the genetic makeup of the Siberian and Northern Asian populations, becoming a prevalent gene among the Altaic-speaking peoples. The southern branch of M119 moved southward, evolving into what would later be known as the "Baiyue." From that point on, the M119 gene disappeared from the Yellow River basin, replaced by the early Qiang people (the tribes of the Han language family) carrying M122.

In the Han Dynasty, slaves generally remained as objects of rights in litigation relationships. For instance, "If parents accuse their children of unfilial conduct, they shall be abandoned to the market. If the children are guilty, they shall be punished with city execution, beating with a pestle, or being made into slaves. If parents accuse them of unfilial conduct, do not listen." The reason slaves could not become defendants is that they were not subjects within the legal litigation relationship and could not possess the capacity for criminal prosecution.

3 Volume 25 of the Book of Han: Records of Sacrificial Rites to the Suburbs

From the perspective of historical records, the legal provisions regarding slaves and servants during the Han and Tang dynasties have certain connections, yet also exhibit differences. Here are a few examples: In Volume 96 of the "Records of the Grand Historian," in the biography of Chancellor Zhang, it is recorded: "At that time, the Governor of Jingzhao, Lord Zhao, had the Chancellor petition for a pardon, but he was not heeded. He sent someone to coerce Chancellor Wei, seeking to evade punishment, but to no avail. He again sent someone to intimidate Chancellor Wei regarding the matter of his wife allegedly killing a servant girl, and privately requested an investigation. Officials were dispatched to the Chancellor's residence to capture the slaves and servants, beating and interrogating them, yet it was confirmed that no weapons were used in the killing. The Chancellor's supervisor, Fan Jun, reported that Governor Zhao of Jingzhao had coerced the Chancellor, falsely accusing him of his wife killing a servant girl, leading to officials surrounding the Chancellor's residence. Furthermore, he obtained the matter of the knight being shielded, resulting in Lord Zhao of Jingzhao being sentenced to death by slicing."

1 [ Japan ] Hori Toshiichi: "A Study on the Equal Field System", Chinese translation, page 332, Fujian People's Publishing House, 1984 edition

1 The Book of Han, Volume 25, Records of Sacrifices to the Suburbs

The views of people during the Han Dynasty regarding whether slaves and servants were considered property were not entirely consistent. The Han government explicitly declared that slaves and servants were also "people," yet in the actual social life of the Han Dynasty, they were undoubtedly regarded as property by the populace. In the Han Dynasty's Juyuan bamboo slips, there are clear records of slaves and servants being counted as family assets. For instance, in the "Juyuan Han Jian Jia Yi Bian" volume 37, 35 (Edition 132), it states: "The candidate Chang Xian received from Gong Cheng Li Zhong, aged 30, two young slaves, valued at 30,000. He used five horses, valued at 20,000. One plot of land, valued at 10,000. One large maid, valued at 20,000. Two ox carts, valued at 4,000. Five hectares of land, valued at 50,000. Two carriages, valued at 10,000. Two oxen, valued at 6,000. The total assets amounted to 150,000." In this property register, the total value of assets is 150,000, which includes 50,000 for the three slaves considered as property. Clearly, here slaves and servants are viewed as property. This point can be further corroborated by the remnants of an Eastern Han stele unearthed in Pixian, Sichuan, which contains the following record: 2.

During the medieval period, the use of slaves and servants in agricultural production was quite common. From the Three Kingdoms period, where sayings such as "slaves plow the fields, and maidservants handle cooking" and "when farming, one should inquire about the slaves; when weaving, one should ask about the maidservants" were prevalent, to the Northern and Southern Dynasties with phrases like "when plowing, ask the field slaves; when weaving, consult the weaving maidservants," it is evident that this was a widespread practice. Although slaves and servants in the Tang Dynasty did not receive land, they were still employed in agriculture and handicrafts. Clearly, from the Qin and Han Dynasties to the medieval period, slaves and servants were extensively utilized in production.

In our country's history, there was a tragic tradition of discarding newborns, which I believe any person of normal intelligence should understand what this implies

The Han Dynasty government did not place significant emphasis on the distinction between official and private slaves. On one hand, private slaves could be confiscated by the government if their masters committed crimes, while masters could also convert their private slaves into official ones to atone for offenses or to purchase nobility. Similarly, official slaves could become private slaves through rewards or sales. However, regardless of whether they transitioned from private to official or vice versa, the Han government seemed to prioritize the transformation of slaves as property rather than their status change. Even a high-ranking empress dowager had to pay to acquire official slaves. The "Book of Han," Volume 77, "The Biography of Wu Jianglong," records: "Empress Dowager Fu sent an envoy to buy several official slaves, acquiring them cheaply, and also obtained eight official slaves from the Chief of the Golden Guards. Long reported: 'The prices are too low; I request a fair adjustment.'" Even the empress dowager had to follow purchasing procedures to obtain official slaves, and those of lower status than her must certainly pay to purchase slaves from the government. This contrasts with the situation in the medieval period, where many slaves of the powerful came from rewards. In the Tang Dynasty, for instance, the nobility primarily received official slaves directly from the Ministry of Agriculture.

6 "Book of the Later Han", Volume 55, "Biographies of Prince Qinghe, Xiao Qing"

6 Wang Centian, 15,000 directly, including five individuals: Nuta, Bihou, Nudo, Nubai, and Nushu

Indeed, during the Han Dynasty, there were also grants of slaves. For instance, Emperor Wu of Han granted three hundred slaves to his half-sister, Princess Xiu Cheng; 2 he also granted one thousand slaves to the alchemist Luan Datong; 3 Huo Guang received a total of one hundred seventy slaves over time; 4 Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han granted five hundred palace attendants and slaves to his brother, Prince Liu Cang of Dongping; 5 Emperor He granted three hundred slaves to Prince Liu Qing of Qinghe; 6 these official slaves, whether given as rewards or sold, would subsequently have their status transformed into private slaves after being sold or treated as gifts.

2 [ Japan ] Hori Toshiichi: "A Study on the Equal Field System", Zhongze Edition, page 333. Fujian People's Publishing House, 1984 edition

8 "Book of the Later Han", Volume 1, "Annals of Emperor Guangwu"

6 "Records of the Grand Historian", Volume 20, "Chronology of the Marquises since the Establishment of the Yuan Era", supplemented by Mr. Zhu

From the above examples, it is evident that during the Han Dynasty, the killing of slaves was a very serious matter. Even for the wife of a prime minister, committing homicide against a slave could not escape accountability. This stands in stark contrast to the Middle Ages, particularly during the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties, where there were numerous instances of slave killings that went unpunished. It can also be observed that if the killing of a slave was due to negligence or excessive punishment, it was not considered a serious crime in the Han Dynasty. The recently published bamboo slips from the Zhangjiashan Han tomb stipulate: "If parents beat their children or slaves, and the children or slaves die from the beating, they shall be required to pay a ransom for the death." It is clear that as long as the slave was not killed "intentionally," the owner could simply pay a fine to atone for the offense.

1 Volume 22 of the "Tang Code with Commentaries": Disputes and Litigation

Therefore, it can be concluded that the possibility of large-scale ethnic integration occurring in history is essentially excluded

On the other hand, the aspect of servants as "humans" is also quite evident. Japanese scholar Hori Toshiichi believes that during the Han Dynasty, "criminals and servants were not regarded as human beings, and in this sense, they were referred to as 'lowly.'" However, in the Han Dynasty, the notion that "servants were not considered human but treated as 'objects' had not yet become fixed." He cites a story from Volume 55 of the Book of the Later Han, in the biography of Liu Kuan: a guest insulted a servant by calling them "livestock," but Liu Kuan responded, "This is a person; to insult them as livestock is a greater humiliation, thus I fear for their life." Hori argues that Liu Kuan still treated servants as humans, stating, "If the notion that servants are equivalent to livestock had already been established, then this remark would lose its significance." Hori's point has some merit. In the edicts of the Han government, Emperor Guangwu explicitly declared, "Killing a servant does not reduce the penalty," indicating that servants were regarded as human beings. Some enlightened landlords and scholars also did not advocate treating servants as "objects." This is quite different from the medieval society, where the Tang Code explicitly stipulated in Volume 6 of the Tang Code and Commentary:

2 Zhangjiashan Han Tomb Bamboo Slips: "Interpretation and Annotation of the Legal Provisions of the Second Year", page 155

From a legal perspective, the status of slaves and servants during the Han Dynasty was higher than that in the Tang Dynasty, and this was also reflected in actual life. For instance, during the reign of Emperor Ai of Han, Wang Mang stated, "If a son kills a slave, he shall be severely punished and ordered to commit suicide." Additionally, Zhu Liang, as the magistrate of Luoyang, dealt with a case where "the wife of the attendant Fan Feng killed a maid and placed her in a well; Liang arrested his wife and executed her." Furthermore, the great-grandson of Duke Duan Pu was punished with exile for killing a maid. Other examples include Duke Shao Shun and King Liang Li, who were stripped of their titles for killing slaves; Duke Jiangling Shi Zihui's wife was sentenced to execution for killing a maid; and King Miao Yuan was penalized with "ineligibility to establish an heir" for killing slaves and coercing them into burial sacrifices. All these instances indicate that the Han Dynasty imposed strict penalties for the killing of slaves.

2 "The Eastern Han Ruins of the Stele Unearthed in Xipu, Pixian County", "Cultural Relics", Issue 4, 1974

According to the "Book of Han", Volume 1, "Annals of Emperor Gao", it is recorded that in the fifth year, an edict stated: "Those who sell themselves into slavery due to hunger shall all be exempted and restored to commoner status"

Volume 99 of the Book of Han: The Biography of Wang Mang

The parents of the people, parents, descendants, co-owners, and co-owners' children, who wish to divide and allocate slaves, horses, cattle, sheep, and other property, are all permitted to do so, and a registration shall be made accordingly. This indicates that slaves are registered in the household registry as property, just like horses, cattle, and sheep.

Therefore, those who incite division between the Northern and Southern Han ethnic groups online are individuals with ulterior motives, as both Northern and Southern Han share a common paternal genetic lineage

The distinction between slaves and free individuals during the Qin Dynasty was not particularly strict. The same was largely true during the Han Dynasty. According to the legal provisions from the early Han Dynasty unearthed at Zhangjiashan: "If a slave or servant behaves well and the master wishes to free them, this is permitted. The slave's status is referred to as private property, while the servant is considered a commoner, and both are treated as slaves and servants in terms of duties and accounts. If the master dies and there is a crime, the private property is treated as a commoner, and the punishment is considered a hidden official. Those who are freed from wrongdoing may return to the status of slaves and servants. If they escape and commit other crimes, they are judged according to the laws governing slaves and servants." This indicates that the transition of identity between slaves and commoners during the Han Dynasty was relatively flexible.

The newly published bamboo slips from the Zhangjiashan Han tomb state: "If a slave is guilty, do not take his wife and children as slaves; if there is a complaint and it has not been resolved before death, they may be taken. Concealing and taking are treated the same as theft." 2 "If a commoner has a slave wife and they have children, the children belong to the slave owner; if the master has relations with a maid and she is the wife of another family's slave, and they have children, the children belong to the maid's owner, all are considered slaves." 3 This reflects that during the Han Dynasty, there were still marriages between slaves and free individuals, and the distinction between the noble and the base was not very strict.

Do not mention O2b or O2a; the overarching type O2 (M95) is absent among the northern Han Chinese and cannot possibly originate from the Manchu, Korean, Thai, or Malay ethnic groups

However, in our study of the R1a1, C3c, and O2b chromosome types, we found that these three types of Y chromosomes are absent among the Han Chinese.

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1 Zai Luo Zhenyu: "Treasures of the Hao Li", cited from Zhu Shaohou's "Land System and Class Relations in the Qin and Han Dynasties", page 40, Zhongzhou Ancient Books Publishing House, 1985 edition. Additionally, some land certificates from the Eastern Han period, such as the "Zhuge Jing's Land Purchase Lead Certificate", are also fundamentally similar in form and content to this certificate. This can verify that this certificate is not a forgery

Compared to the Han Dynasty, during the medieval period, the killing of slaves and servants could be mitigated in terms of punishment. The Tang Code explicitly stated that a master who killed a slave or servant could have their sentence reduced by four degrees; intentional killing of a slave or servant would result in a penal sentence of only one year, while accidental killing of a slave or servant would incur no punishment. Conversely, if a slave or servant injured their master, even in cases of accidental harm, they would be subjected to execution by hanging. It is evident that, in terms of legal provisions, the status of slaves and servants during the medieval period was significantly lower than that during the reign of Emperor Guangwu of the Han Dynasty.

"Exegesis and Commentary on the Regulations of the Second Year", page 178. Cultural Relics Publishing House, November 2001

In simple terms, the Southern Han Chinese can be primarily represented by a patrilineal lineage (Y chromosome of Northern Han Chinese) and a matrilineal lineage (mitochondrial DNA from various Southern ethnic groups that have integrated Northern Han Chinese mitochondrial DNA). Not only do the Southern Han Chinese differ from the Northern Han Chinese in terms of mitochondrial DNA, but there are also differences among themselves. For instance, the mitochondrial DNA of Han Chinese in Hunan differs from that of Han Chinese in Fujian. Even among the people of Guangdong, the Cantonese and Hakka exhibit differences in their mitochondrial DNA.

The servant strikes above the commoner. Tattooing the cheek, it is given to the master

In the context of the seven categories of social status, the distinctions of nobility and commonality during the Han Dynasty were not strictly defined. It is clear that there were no restrictions on the marriages of merchants. Those who were akin to slaves, such as sons-in-law, could also marry ordinary women, and the practice of endogamy based on social status was not enforced. Furthermore, similar to the Qin Dynasty, commoners in the Han era could use slaves to atone for crimes, exchange slaves for titles, and exempt themselves from corvée labor through the use of slaves. This indicates that the distinctions between slaves and free citizens were not rigid in the Han Dynasty. For instance, Chao Cuo once remarked to Emperor Wen, "Those who recruit slaves to atone for crimes, as well as those who offer slaves to obtain titles, should be relocated to the frontier." This further illustrates that the distinctions between slaves and free citizens were not strictly enforced in the Han Dynasty.

1 "A Preliminary Study of the Bamboo Slips from the Han Tomb No. 8 at Phoenix Mountain, Jiangling", "Cultural Relics", Issue 6, 1976; "Excavation Report of the Han Tomb No. 167 at Phoenix Mountain, Jiangling", "Cultural Relics", Issue 10, 1976

The Northern Asian population represents the ethnic groups of the Altaic language family. Due to their habitation in cold climate regions, where agriculture is not feasible and others cannot encroach, it is difficult to replace them

The newly discovered bamboo slips from the Zhangjiashan Han tomb provide additional information. For instance, the "Regulations of the Second Year" stipulates: "If a grandson lives with his grandparents and does not care for them properly, he shall be made to live outside, while the grandparents shall occupy his room, eat from his fields, and utilize his servants and maids, without trading or selling them" Here, the fields are linked with the servants and maids

Let us discuss once more the formation of the Han ethnic group

2 See Wu Rongzeng: "On the Relationship between Slave Labor and Agricultural Production in the Qin and Han Dynasties," included in the Collection of Essays in Memory of Zheng Tianting, Zhonghua Book Company, 1990 edition

5 Volume 15 of the Book of Han: Table of Princes and Dukes

C3c (M48) is a type associated with a certain lineage. Testing has been conducted on the descendants of historical figures with surnames such as "Bao" and "Bao" in regions like Fuxin, Liaoning, and Tongliao, Inner Mongolia. The frequency of this gene among the Han ethnic group is 0. In 1279, our Huaxia nation fell, and by 1350, this dynasty had essentially lost over 80% of the Han regions. During the 70 years that followed, due to ethnic barriers, there was virtually no integration

The Book of the Later Han, Volume 1, "Chronicle of Emperor Guangwu," records: In the seventh year of Jianwu, "an edict was issued stating that officials should allow those who had suffered from famine and chaos, as well as those who had been captured by the Qing and Xu bandits and turned into slaves or concubines, to choose whether to stay or leave. Anyone who dared to detain them and not return them would be dealt with according to the law for selling people." In the twelfth year, "an edict was issued stating that the people of Long and Shu who had been captured and turned into slaves or concubines, those who filed lawsuits, and those whose cases had not been reported by the court officials, would all be exempted and restored to commoner status." In the thirteenth year, "an edict was issued stating that the people of Yizhou who had been captured and turned into slaves or concubines since the eighth year would all be exempted and restored to commoner status. Those who had been taken as concubines could choose to leave, and anyone who dared to detain them would be dealt with according to the law for capturing people, similar to the cases in Qing and Xu provinces." In the fourteenth year, "an edict was issued stating that the slaves and concubines in Yizhou and Liangzhou, who had been captured since the eighth year, would be exempted and restored to commoner status, and those who sold them would not be compensated." The same book, in the volume "Chronicle of Emperor Ming," records: In the second year of Zhongyuan, an edict was issued stating that "people from the border regions who had been captured and turned into residents of the inner districts, as well as their wives, would all be sent back to the border before the amnesty in the Ji Yin year, allowing them to return to their preferred places."

The notion that slaves and servants are regarded as property, akin to livestock and material wealth, was widely accepted during the medieval period. Consequently, some Japanese scholars believe that the concept of slaves as 'objects' became firmly established after the Wei and Jin dynasties. The "Book of Song," Volume 42, in the biography of Wang Hong, records the words of a Southern Dynasties scholar stating: 'A slave without a seal is nameless. The resources of the people are considered private and lowly.' This indicates that slaves and servants are distinct from the 'good citizens' directly governed by the state. The same volume of the "Book of Song" reiterates that 'A slave without a seal is nameless. The resources of the people are considered private and lowly.' This further illustrates that slaves and servants lack independent status, are not registered in official records, and are viewed as resources of the people, regarded as private and lowly.

These edicts reflect that the status of debt slaves in the Han Dynasty was not stable, and the central authority had the right to intervene and require their masters to release them unconditionally. This differs from the medieval period, when the government placed relatively more emphasis on the rights of masters and generally only allowed for redemption under certain circumstances

Finally, regarding O2, the frequency of O2 among 560 Northern Han individuals was zero, with none found, while among the Manchu people it was 23%, among the Korean ethnic group in China it was 44%, among the Korean ethnic group in South Korea it was 32%, and among the Japanese it was 30%. This completely rules out the possibility of fusion between Northern Han and the Manchu or Korean ethnic groups. In a sample of 1,200 Southern Han individuals, there was a very small amount of O2, but not O2b; although it can be detected, it should also be noted that in Thailand, O2 (not O2b) was 63%, and among the Zhuang people, O2 was 36%. This again completely rules out the possibility of fusion between Northern Han and the Manchu or Korean ethnic groups. The O2 among Southern Han individuals must necessarily come from these ethnic groups and cannot originate from Northeast Asia through Northern Han. (Perhaps this also demonstrates how similar the brutality of the Manchu Qing and Japan is, and how shameless the Koreans, Japanese, and Manchu are, at least genetically speaking, as the three share a kinship in bloodline). The O2 among Southern Han individuals must necessarily come from these ethnic groups and cannot originate from Northeast Asia through Northern Han. (Perhaps this also demonstrates how similar the brutality of the Manchu Qing and Japan is, and how shameless the Koreans, Japanese, and Manchu are, at least genetically speaking, as the three share a kinship in bloodline)

***

11 fields of 30 mu, 10,000 in total, the back building of the central pavilion, 40,000 from Jia Si, 70,000 from Su Boxiang's visit to the residence, 170,000 from Jia.

7 fields of 50 acres each, totaling 300,000; He Guangzhou's fields cover 80 acres, quality ... ...

Let us first make an assumption: if a large-scale ethnic integration truly occurs in northern China, then the Turkic-speaking peoples (Xiongnu, Turks), Mongolic-speaking peoples (Xianbei, Khitan, Mongols), and Manchu-speaking peoples (Jurchen, Manchus) should exhibit a similar distribution of shared Y chromosome types as the Han Chinese

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9 yuan for the original farmland at Ba Koukou, valued at 80,000, therefore Wang Wentian, with an area of 90 acres, is priced at 310,000, therefore Yang Hankoukouk.

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Volume 97 of the Book of Han: Biography of Empress Dowager Xiao Jing Wang

This account of tribal migration history may well be the famous historical legend of the Yellow Emperor's victory over Chiyou that has been passed down through our folk traditions. Although we cannot find the remnants of the battles from that time, we can certainly find corresponding archaeological and genetic evidence: archaeologically, the Dawenkou culture in Shandong disappeared, replaced by the Longshan culture that came from Shaanxi and Henan. Subsequently, the culture that existed in Shandong was the Shandong Longshan culture. Genetically, the evidence is even more pronounced; among the Han people in Shandong and Hebei provinces, the ratio of M122 to M119 is close to 50:1, with over 95% of individuals being descendants of those who came east with the Yellow Emperor (the Xianqi tribe, M122 type). The Longshan culture that replaced it came from Shaanxi and Henan, and thereafter, the culture that existed in Shandong was the Shandong Longshan culture. Genetically, the evidence is even more pronounced; among the Han people in Shandong and Hebei provinces, the ratio of M122 to M119 is close to 50:1, with over 95% of individuals being descendants of those who came east with the Yellow Emperor (the Xianqi tribe, M122 type).

Firstly, the slaves and servants of the Han Dynasty were widely used in production, similar to those in the medieval period

4 "Dongguan Hanji", Volume 21, "Biography of Duan Pu"

In contrast, there are quite a number of C3c occurrences among certain ethnic groups in Northeast China and the Turkic-speaking peoples in Northwest China

This text appears to be a placeholder or a non-specific symbol. Please provide a specific text for translation.

During the medieval period, particularly in the Tang Dynasty, the management of the official and private slave system was strict. The distinction between official and private slaves was clear, and official and private slaves could not be interchanged. Anyone who borrowed an official slave or lent an official slave to another person would be punished with fifty strokes.

Second, the similarities and differences between the nature of slaves in the Han Dynasty and those in the medieval period

In conclusion, the formation of the Han ethnic group can be traced back to around 3000 BC, when various tribes of the Huaxia ancestors formed a loose Han language group. It was not until the establishment of the Zhou Dynasty, through the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, that the various schools of thought began to lay the foundation for the Daoist tradition of our Huaxia civilization. Following the unification by Qin Shi Huang and the rule of the Han Dynasty, the lineage and cultural heritage of the Han ethnic group were formally established. Over the subsequent two thousand years, the large-scale invasions by foreign ethnic groups that our Han people endured can be divided into four periods: the first being the chaos of the Five Barbarians, the second the Liao and Jin periods, the third the Mongol rule, and the fourth the Manchu Qing Dynasty.

Secondly, regarding R1a1, this is a gene unique to the Turkic peoples of Central Asia. It is found in 20.1% of Uzbeks, 16% of Uyghurs, and over 80% of the Hkoton people. However, R1a1 has not been detected among Han Chinese. Among Han Chinese, nearly 1% carry R1 and P7, but these are not R1a1; rather, they are distant relatives from 15,000 years ago. The R1a1 of Central Asian Turks appeared around 1600, contributing 0 to the diversity of Y chromosome types in Han Chinese. Among Han Chinese, nearly 1% carry R1 and P7, but these are not R1a1; rather, they are distant relatives from 15,000 years ago. The R1a1 of Central Asian Turks appeared around 1600, contributing 0 to the diversity of Y chromosome types in Han Chinese

4 "The Book of Han", Volume 68, "Biography of Huo Guang"

Fourth, regarding the management of official servants.

From the perspective of the litigation rights of servants, the "Tang Code and Commentary" Volume Six, "Regulations on Names and Examples," stipulates: "Servants and slaves under a master are not to be implicated. The commentary states: If the master does not conceal the servant or slave, they may be allowed to conceal for the master; unless it involves conspiracy or rebellion, they shall not be punished." Volume Two of the "Tang Code and Commentary" records: "If any servant or slave accuses their master, unless it involves conspiracy or rebellion, they shall all be executed by strangulation." Apart from the "Ten Evils" crimes, servants and slaves are not permitted to accuse their masters. Otherwise, they shall be punished by strangulation. The commentary states: If the master does not conceal the servant or slave, they may be allowed to conceal for the master; unless it involves conspiracy or rebellion, they shall not be punished." Volume Two of the "Tang Code and Commentary" records: "If any servant or slave accuses their master, unless it involves conspiracy or rebellion, they shall all be executed by strangulation." Apart from the "Ten Evils" crimes, servants and slaves are not permitted to accuse their masters. Otherwise, they shall be punished by strangulation.

2 "Bamboo Slips from the Zhangjiashan Han Tomb (Tomb No. 247)": "Interpretation and Annotation of the Legal Code of the Second Year", Page 158

During these four periods, it can be said that the Han people suffered large-scale massacres and oppression; however, their lineage remained intact. During the period of the Five Barbarians disrupting the Han, the Five Barbarians slaughtered the Han people and even consumed them. The number of Han women giving birth to children of the barbarians was extremely low. One can imagine the discrimination a woman would face in that era for giving birth to a barbarian child. The custom of discarding the firstborn can be traced back to this time. From our modern perspective, this custom seems cruel, as the child is innocent; however, for the ancients, who placed great importance on lineage, it was considered a matter of course.

1 "Bamboo Slips from the Zhangjiashan Han Tomb (Tomb No. 247)": "Exegesis and Commentary on the Legal Provisions of the Second Year"

The Zhou people referred to their country as "Youxia". Subsequently, various feudal states also called themselves "Youxia" and collectively referred to themselves as "Zhuxia". The term "Xia" originally meant a vast region. The Zhou people identified their own ethnicity as "Hua" and referred to foreign tribes as "Yi" (meaning different). Thereafter, all blood-related tribes with a common origin to the Zhou began to call themselves "Huazhou" and referred to foreign tribes as "Feilei" and "Yiren" (meaning non-Hua people), indicating those who were not of the Hua ethnicity. The term "Hua" originally signified nobility and grandeur. From this point on, "Huaxia" became the collective name for these feudal states, which is also the origin of the term "Zhonghua" in the People's Republic of China. The language of the Zhou people was called "Yayu" (Xia language), which was widely spoken across the nation. Confucius taught students from different feudal states, yet they all understood his words because he spoke the common language of the time—"Yayu". This is mentioned in the "Analects" with the phrase "Zi suo yayan". Not speaking "Yayu" was referred to as "Yeyan" or "Feiwen". Due to the need for communication and the advancement of literature, "Yayu" eventually became the national language, which we now refer to as Chinese. By 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang ultimately unified these strongly identified fragmented states, and later, through the unification and prosperity of the Han Dynasty, the Huaxia people finally developed into the Han ethnicity.

The development during the pre-Qin period led to the unification of all branches of the Chinese language family under the Zhou clan's "elegant language." Through long-term integration and continuous population migration, today, the differences among the Han people north of the Yangtze River have become very minimal, with little variation from Shandong to Gansu.

1 The Book of Han, Volume 6, The Annals of Emperor Wu

However, in legal practice, the status of slaves during the Han Dynasty was undergoing changes. As previously cited from the edict of Emperor Guangwu of Han, it was repeatedly stipulated that killing or abusing slaves was prohibited, stating that "killing a slave does not reduce the penalty." Against this broader backdrop of the Han Dynasty, some slaves began to acquire certain capacities as rights holders. The Records of the Grand Historian, Volume 129, "Treatise on the Wealthy Merchants," states: "In Qi, the custom is to regard slaves as cheap, yet Diao Jian uniquely valued them highly. The cunning slaves, who were a source of trouble for others, were solely collected by Diao Jian, who made them pursue the profits of fish and salt merchants... ultimately, they gained their strength, amounting to tens of millions." Contemporary evaluations of Diao Jian noted that "he could make the wealthy slaves thrive and exert their full strength." In this historical material, the wealthy slaves were made to manage the fish and salt trade, indicating that their actions were relatively free. It was precisely because they possessed certain managerial rights that they could exert their strength and thrive.

Certainly, under normal circumstances, the legal status of slaves and servants during the Han Dynasty was lower than that of ordinary individuals. The same crime did not incur the same punishment. For example: "If a son kills or injures his parents, or if a slave or servant kills or injures their master, the master, parents, and wife are all executed by beheading in public" 3

Fifth, the boundaries between slaves and commoners during the Han Dynasty were not very strict

In the 1970s, a number of legal bamboo slips from the Qin Dynasty were unearthed at the Sleeping Tiger Ground, which contained substantial information about slaves and servants. I have previously compared this with the regulations regarding the status of slaves and servants in the Tang Dynasty legal texts, in order to illustrate the historical relationship and differences between the slave systems of the Qin and Tang Dynasties. In recent years, a large number of Qin bamboo slips have also been discovered in Liyang, Longshan, Hunan, reportedly containing considerable information about the status of slaves and servants in the Qin Dynasty. Unfortunately, the complete publication and dissemination of these materials is still pending. In 2001, the notable "Zhangjiashan Han Tomb Bamboo Slips" were introduced.

During the period of the Five Barbarians, the only group that truly integrated with the Han people was the Xianbei. However, the so-called integration by the Xianbei was limited to the nobility and the Han aristocracy, and this integration was almost negligible. Apart from the Xianbei, subsequent foreign invasions strictly maintained a policy of ethnic segregation from the Han people, while the conservatism of the Han ensured the purity of their lineage. Therefore, the so-called great ethnic integration, apart from the one instance of the Xianbei actively merging with the Han, is merely a narrative created in the present for the sake of unity. Subsequent foreign invasions continued to uphold a strict policy of ethnic segregation from the Han, and the conservatism of the Han ensured the purity of their lineage. Thus, the so-called great ethnic integration, apart from the one instance of the Xianbei actively merging with the Han, is merely a narrative created in the present for the sake of unity.

According to the "Lead Certificate of Land Purchase by Sun Cheng in the Fourth Year of Jian Ning" unearthed from the Eastern Han Dynasty: "On the 28th day of the 9th month of the fourth year of Jian Ning, on the day of Wu Mu, Sun Cheng, the left stable officer, purchased from Zhang Boshi, a man from Luoyang, a piece of land named Guangde Pavilion, measuring one tian. The purchase price was fifteen thousand coins, which was paid in full on the same day. The land is bordered to the east by Zhang Shaoqing, to the south by Xu Zhongyi, to the west by the main road, and to the north by Zhang Boshi. All native plants and animals on the land belong to Sun Cheng. If there are any dead bodies found on the land, males shall become slaves and females shall become servants, all of whom shall serve Sun Cheng. The boundaries of the land to the east, west, south, and north are marked by large stones. At that time, the bystanders Fan Yong, Zhang Yi, Sun Long, and the unrelated Fan Yuanzu were all aware of the contract and shared the wine equally..."

Volume 53 of the Book of Han: The Biography of King Jing and Thirteen Kings

Firstly, regarding C3c, the database of Dean Jin Li from the School of Life Sciences at Fudan University contains over 560 samples from Northern Han Chinese and more than 1,200 samples from Southern Han Chinese (as of 2004), yet surprisingly, there is not a single instance of C3c. In contrast, among the Mongolian population in Outer Mongolia, the proportion is 17%, 12% among the Kazakhs, and 24% among the Tuvans, indicating a particularly high frequency of C3c among Turkic and Mongolic ethnic groups. The absence of C3c in over 560 Han Chinese and more than 1,200 Southern Han Chinese samples essentially rules out the possibility of large-scale historical integration between Turkic, Mongolic, and Han Chinese populations, at least in terms of paternal Y chromosome evidence.

According to the legal reflections from the early Han period found at Zhangjiashan and in literature, in certain circumstances, slaves in the Han Dynasty even had the right to inherit property: "If a master dies without heirs and has slaves, the slaves shall be freed and treated as commoners, inheriting the land, houses, and remaining assets according to the law. If there are many slaves, only one may act as the representative, and priority is given to those who have served the longest and have been recognized by the master as capable. " It is evident that when a master dies without heirs, the slaves can be transformed into commoners to inherit property, and specific methods for determining the heirs are stipulated. In the Tang Dynasty, slaves clearly did not hold such status, and thus there were no legal provisions for this.

After this primitive tribal war, the various tribes of the Han language family controlled the entire Yellow River basin, establishing numerous fiefdoms. This state of affairs lasted for nearly 2000 years. Approximately 3100 years ago, a small tribe migrated from Tianshui in Gansu to the Zhouyuan in Shaanxi, known as the Zhou people. Under the leadership of King Wu of Zhou, the Zhou people eliminated the Shang dynasty. After the fall of the Shang, King Wu of Zhou led 300 chariots and 5000 elite troops, taking three years to destroy 99 fiefdoms, conquer 652 fiefdoms, and capture 4.1 million prisoners of war, as recorded in the "Lost Book of Zhou: The Explanation of Captives, Chapter 40." In the following hundred years, the Western Zhou established a large number of vassal states, and the Zhou people spread throughout the country along with these enfeoffments.

4 Volume 24 of the "Tang Code with Commentaries": "Disputes and Litigation"

Additionally, we can argue from another perspective that the Han, Tibetan, Qiang, Bai, Yi, Tujia, and other ethnic groups possess a particularly unique marker of the Y chromosome type O3e, specifically M134, which exceeds 30% in various regions. The time of appearance, with a 95% confidence interval, ranges from 2000 to 16000 years, with a probability peak of 4900 ± 400 years. This undoubtedly indicates a shared gene of the Sino-Tibetan language family from 5000 to 6000 years ago, and it cannot have originated from any other ethnic group. This further supports the argument that the Han gene did not undergo significant changes during the differentiation of the Sino-Tibetan languages 5000 to 6000 years ago, fundamentally negating the notion of large-scale integration in the northern regions. The presence exceeding 30% in various areas, with the time of appearance within a 95% confidence interval of 2000 to 16000 years and a probability peak of 4900 ± 400 years, undoubtedly points to a shared gene of the Sino-Tibetan language family from 5000 to 6000 years ago, which cannot have originated from any other ethnic group. This further substantiates the argument that the Han gene did not experience significant changes during the differentiation of the Sino-Tibetan languages 5000 to 6000 years ago, fundamentally denying the large-scale integration in the northern regions.

8,500. Five thousand. Nurtian, Koukou, Kousheng, Bixiao, Nusheng, totaling five individuals, with a direct value of 200,000, one head of cattle, and 15,000.

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Volume 20 of "Dongguan Hanji" - "Biography of Zhu Liang"

In this deed, the left stable officer, a slave named Sun Cheng, appears to be a servant of the official responsible for managing horses. This individual is able to purchase a field of one-tenth of a mu from Zhang Boshih for fifteen thousand coins, indicating that he possesses personal property. The deed states that if there are any dead bodies, male or female, found on the land, they are considered his slaves, which signifies that he holds complete ownership of the land. This reflects the authenticity of his ownership of the land.

The Book of Han, Volume 76, "Biography of Zhao Guanghan," also records: "In the third year of the Earthly Cycle, in the middle of July, the Chancellor Fu Bi made a mistake and hanged himself. Guanghan, upon hearing this, suspected the Chancellor's wife of jealousy and killed her servants... Guanghan then submitted a letter to accuse the Chancellor of wrongdoing. The decree stated that the matter should be handled by the Governor of Jingzhao... Knowing the urgency of the situation, Guanghan personally led officials and soldiers to storm the Chancellor's residence, summoned his wife to kneel in the courtyard to receive the charges, and took away more than ten servants, holding her accountable for the killing of the servants... The matter was submitted to the Court of Judicial Review for punishment. In reality, the Chancellor had blamed Fu Bi for his own mistakes, and it was only after being exiled to his outer residence that he died, which was not as Guanghan had claimed." Furthermore, in The Book of Han, Volume 53, "Biography of King Jing's Thirteenth Son, Zhao Jingsu, and Peng Zu," it records: "King Miao, Liu Yuan, previously killed servants with a blade, and his son killed a visitor, which was reported by the Inspector and clearly constituted a crime."

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In the pre-Qin era, it was impossible for slaves and servants to possess the right to litigate. Given that most slaves were aligned with the status of criminal bondsmen and those who had undergone punishments such as castration, amputation, or dismemberment were generally excluded from the normal social order, it was inconceivable for slaves to have the right to sue their masters. During the Qin and Han dynasties, under normal circumstances, slaves still could not sue their masters. The previously mentioned Qin bamboo slip "Legal Q&A" stipulates that "killing, punishing, or mutilating one's children or servants is considered a private complaint and should not be heard." Additionally, newly unearthed Zhangjiashan Han bamboo slips also contain the provision that "children suing their parents, wives suing their husbands, and slaves suing their masters or their masters' parents and wives should not be heard, and those who abandon such complaints will be punished in the market."

After the Qin and Han dynasties, the Central Plains dynasties began to exert military and political control over the regions south of the Yangtze River. A large number of Han Chinese immigrants started to migrate southward. Today, the differences between the northern and southern Han Chinese in terms of the Y chromosome are minimal, with a 90% similarity, indicating that the paternal lineage of both northern and southern Han Chinese is of the same origin. The differences between the northern and southern Han Chinese are primarily reflected in mtDNA, which pertains to maternal lineage.

1 Volume 15 of the "Tang Code with Commentaries": Stables and Granaries

East Asian Yellow people can be divided into four major groups: Northern Asian population, Upper Yellow River population, Lower Yellow River population, and Southeast Asian population

10 slaves, 3 mouths, and 5 people, totaling 200,000... 1 cow, 15,000, and 2.6 hectares of land...

Page 196 of the "Bamboo Slips from the Tomb of the Sleeping Tiger"

1. "Bamboo Slips from the Zhangjiashan Han Tomb (Tomb No. 247)"

In the eleventh year of Emperor Guangwu's reign, an edict clearly stated: "In the nature of heaven and earth, humanity is of utmost importance; thus, the killing of slaves and servants shall not be mitigated in punishment." This legally equated the status of slaves and servants with that of free individuals regarding personal injury. In the eighth month, on the day of Guihai, an edict declared: "Anyone who dares to burn or scald slaves and servants shall be punished according to the law, and the injured shall be granted the status of commoners." In the winter, on the day of Renwu in the tenth month, another edict stated: "Exempt slaves and servants from the punishment of shooting and injuring others in the market." Records from the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth years also document the exemption of slaves and servants to the status of commoners.

It is particularly important to note that the specific type C3c, which is unique to a certain group, is not present among the Han Chinese, whether in the south or the north. This type appeared within the time frame of 1100 ? 00.

12 acres of land in Wangtian, with a quality of 30,000, including servants, slaves, and maids, as well as provisions for slaves and maids, and a well

Han ethnicity, descendants of Yan and Huang, unchanged for five thousand years

As for the detailed, complex, and stringent legal regulations regarding the status of slaves and the relationships between the noble and the base, similar to those in the medieval period, they largely did not exist during the Han Dynasty. This is because the historical conditions necessary for the formation of the medieval noble-base system had not yet been fully established during the Han Dynasty

In the Tang Code, it states that "if any of the subordinates or servants report their master, unless it is for treason or rebellion, they shall all be executed by hanging." This is likely derived from the laws of the Qin and Han dynasties 4

1 "Bamboo Slips from the Zhangjiashan Han Tomb (Tomb No. 247)": "Exegesis and Commentary on the Legal Provisions of the Second Year", Page 138

This is similar in the history of the Han people's migration to the south. The primary reasons for the migration of the Han people to the south were military service, fleeing from wars, and exile due to crimes. Most of these individuals were male, and there were few cases of them bringing family members. Therefore, they certainly married local women, resulting in the southern Han people having the same patrilineal ancestors as the northern Han people, but different matrilineal ancestors.

Thirdly, regarding the similarities and differences in the legal status of slaves and servants during the Han and Tang dynasties

3 "Bamboo Slips from the Zhangjiashan Han Tomb (Tomb No. 247)": "Interpretation and Annotation of the Legal Code of the Second Year", Page 158

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