Chapter Seven: Dadonggou

In July, the battle formation of the Combined Fleet under the command of Admiral Ito Yuheng when departing from Sasebo was as follows: Main Force: Matsushima, Itsukushima, Hashidate, Takachiho, Chiyoda, Hiei, Fusō; First Destroyer Division: Yoshino, Akitsushima, Naniwa, as well as the Second Destroyer Division and the Torpedo Boat Division

What about the Beiyang Fleet? Li Hongzhang adopted a strategy of "fleet in being".

Vice Admiral Fremantle, Commander of the British Far East Fleet, pointed out: "On paper, this formation is flawless." However, he questioned, "If it is not the most outstanding commanders and the best-trained fleet, this formation should not be adopted." Why is that?

Conversely, the single-file formation adopted by the Combined Fleet is indeed worthy of scrutiny. It has been previously mentioned that the flagship Matsushima, leading the "Three Scenery Ships" of the Combined Fleet, suffers from design flaws that compromise the ship's balance when the turrets are turned to fire broadside, making it nearly impossible to conduct side-firing operations. In fact, during the four-hour Battle of Dazhonggou, the 32 cm main guns of Matsushima fired only three shells, which serves as evidence of this issue

Due to the impending decisive battle between two opposing fleets on this sea, the Yellow Sea at that time became the focal point of global attention. In addition to the ships of the Beiyang Fleet and the Combined Fleet, naval vessels from Britain, France, the United States, Germany, and Russia were dispatched to observe the battle. From the perspective of other nations' navies, the performance of the Chinese and Japanese navies during this period was particularly peculiar. The Beiyang Fleet seemed to be solely focused on escorting troop transports, while the Combined Fleet, after failing to engage the Beiyang Fleet in battle, appeared to have settled into a role of escort duty.

10:23, the leading Yoshino issued a signal: "A coal smoke has been spotted ahead." Commander Ito did not pay much attention to this signal, as there were numerous foreign warships in the area, and the sighting of a coal smoke did not indicate anything significant. He merely issued a signal to "continue monitoring," and the entire fleet continued to advance.

The method employed by the British to address this issue is known as "Dog Fight," where each fights independently, which is why there exists a principle of "bow to the enemy"

Thus, due to insufficient training and significant flaws in the signaling system, the Beiyang Fleet, with its uneven speed, formed a somewhat crooked line and charged towards the Combined Fleet

But only in theory

The mobilization of the Fifth Division took place on June 12, but it was only after the decision was made at the headquarters to dispatch the remaining part of the Fifth Division to Korea to assist the Daishima forces in Seoul that this occurred, following the Battle of Pungdo. Although the Japanese forces won the Battle of Pungdo, they could not yet claim naval supremacy, which prevented the Fifth Division from landing at Incheon. Instead, they could only land at Busan and Wonsan on the eastern coast of Korea, and then proceed to Seoul by land. However, the poor condition of the land routes in Korea at that time made movement extremely difficult. Therefore, on August 18, they had no choice but to take the risky option of maritime transport, shipping the troops and supplies remaining in Busan to Incheon.

It is highly likely that the Qing fleet, which is currently seeking opportunities for battle, will be defeated one by one. Even the loss of a small vessel like the Tsukushi would significantly impact the balance of power between both sides. Do the commanders of the Combined Fleet know what they are doing right now

The Beiyang Fleet, as predicted by Ito Yūhō, formed a line abreast formation

Is there any issue with the formation of the Beiyang Fleet

In fact, there is no such thing as a "problematic" formation. The optimal formation for a decisive battle of steam fleets is still unknown. The first historical decisive battle of steam fleets took place 29 years prior to the Battle of Tsushima, in July 1866, at the island of Lissa in the central part of the Adriatic Sea, east of the Italian peninsula, where the Italian Navy faced the Austrian Navy, resulting in a victory for the Austrian Navy.

At this time, the Japanese army forces arriving in the vicinity of Pyongyang included the Ōshima Mixed Brigade, part of the 5th Division, and part of the 3rd Division, totaling approximately 16,000 men. Due to rapid movements and maritime risks, a situation of inadequate support had already arisen. Some units of the 5th Division had only two rice balls left for each soldier, placing them in a critical situation. On September 14, the commander of the 5th Division, Nozumi Michikatsu, launched a risky offensive, betting everything on a gamble. The Qing forces defending Pyongyang numbered about 15,000 men, equipped with 40 various artillery pieces, and were not at a disadvantage compared to the attacking Japanese troops. Moreover, on September 15, during the battle, the Japanese forces, despite their utmost efforts, managed to breach only a single point in the outer city of Pyongyang.

A single telegram locked the Beiyang Fleet into the Bohai Bay, and the possibility that Akiyama Yoshinobu feared of the Beiyang Fleet being defeated one by one did not materialize, nor did the mistakes made by Ito Yuyuhen lead to any consequences

Defending Pyongyang, they did not even last a day, and tens of thousands of elite Huai Army troops vanished without a trace

At this time, the Beiyang Fleet was unaware that Pyongyang had actually fallen. They also did not know that the Minister of Military Affairs of the Huashan Ziji had obtained intelligence from the telegrams confiscated from the captured transport ships, which indicated that the Beiyang Fleet was engaged in transportation between the interior and the mouth of the Yalu River to support the army. Therefore, starting from September 12, the Combined Fleet began searching from Incheon towards the mouth of the Dandong River, and then proceeded to search from the mouth of the Dandong River to the mouth of the Yalu River.

However, the Beiyang Fleet also ended up with nothing

The Emperor's declaration of war was issued on August 1, following the Battle of Daito and the Battle of Chenghuan Yashan. Due to the presence of the main force of the Japanese Mixed 7th Brigade stationed in Hanjing, Ye Zhichao had no choice but to detour along the eastern coast of Korea, retreating 1,000 kilometers to defend Pyongyang after the Chenghuan battle. At this time, there were no Qing troops left in southern Korea, and the entire western coast of Korea was no longer threatened by the Beiyang Fleet.

On September 17, 1894, the Beiyang Fleet and the United Fleet encountered each other at the Dadonggou near the mouth of the Yalu River, engaging in a life-and-death struggle that would affect the fate of both nations and influence the historical trajectory of East Asia and indeed the entire Asian continent.

First Guerrilla Unit: Major General Kozo Pingui, Chief Commander; Captain Seika Nakamura, Staff Officer; subordinate ships Yoshino, Takachiho, Akitsushima, and Naniwa among others

On August 2, the day after the declaration of war, the General Headquarters issued orders to the Combined Fleet to swiftly eliminate the Beiyang Fleet and secure maritime supremacy. The Combined Fleet took a gamble and surprisingly arrived at Weihaiwei on the morning of August 10 in search of a decisive battle with the Beiyang Fleet, but found nothing. At that time, Ding Ruchang had six main warships, including the Dingyuan, operating at the mouth of the Yalu River.

Later known as the "foremost naval strategist of the Imperial Japanese Navy," Akiyama Zen'ichi was at that time a junior lieutenant on the old-style cruiser "Chikushi," which had a displacement of 350 tons. In a letter to a friend dated August 30, he stated: "The commanders of the Combined Fleet are all amateurs in naval warfare; we must correct this folly in the future." What specific "follies" did he refer to? Akiyama pointed out: "Given that we do not know the location of the Qing fleet, we should first assume that the Qing fleet is also attempting to seek a decisive battle with the Combined Fleet, while the current Combined Fleet is fragmented. The main forces are already moving towards Pyongyang, yet our Chikushi is stuck at Yashan, and the so-called 'star battleship' Takachiho is stranded at the Han River, while the main fleet is even further south at Chōchiku Road."

This is because the Combined Fleet failed to engage in a decisive battle with the Beiyang Fleet, and thus it cannot be said that they had achieved naval supremacy. Consequently, the Japanese General Staff had to change the operational plan for a decisive land battle in the Zhili Plain in August 1894 from Plan A to Plan B, which prioritized securing Korea first. The General Staff then mobilized the Third Division from Japan and combined it with the Fifth Division already in Korea to form the First Army, commanded by General Yamagata Aritomo, the senior-most officer in the army, in preparation for the Battle of Pyongyang

From the very beginning, the Beiyang Fleet adopted a battle formation known as the line abreast. This was established by Colonel Lang William M, the earliest British advisor and chief instructor of the Beiyang Fleet, and it was well-suited to the characteristics of the fleet's vessels. The core of the Beiyang Fleet consisted of the Dingyuan and Zhenyuan, both of which were 7,335-ton ironclad turret ships equipped with four 30.5 cm heavy guns at the bow. In the line abreast formation, this configuration of gun positions allowed the main guns to fire directly without the need to rotate the turrets. Furthermore, the Royal Navy's principle of 'bow to the enemy' meant that, at least theoretically, there was little to criticize about this formation.

Now even this is no longer necessary. During the Battle of Daito, the Chaojiang was captured, and the code signal book on board also fell into the hands of the Japanese. The newly revised signal book was unfamiliar to everyone, so Ding Ruchang had no choice but to issue the strange order, "If there is no flagship signal, each can act on their own," before the battle. In fact, throughout the entire naval battle, Ding Ruchang did not issue a single signal.

Another point is that the age and speed of the Beiyang Fleet's ships differ significantly from what is stated in the literature. Once they are lined up in a straight line and set in motion, the smaller and older ships on the flanks immediately fall behind, forming a "V" shape. Leading the formation are the two large ships, Dingyuan and Zhenyuan, while lagging behind are the ships on either side, Yangwei, Chaoyong, Guangjia, and Jiyuan. Of course, the reason for Jiyuan's lagging is not solely due to its low speed.

On September 17, the joint fleet participating in the Battle of Daito River consisted of: Commander-in-Chief Vice Admiral Ito Yuheng, Chief of Staff Colonel Kamejima Kazunori, Staff Officer Major Imamura Hayao, and the six subordinate ships Matsushima, Iritaka, Hashirate, Chiyoda, Hiei, and Fusō.

In the vast ocean, surrounded by just a few faces that I had already grown to dislike within the first three minutes, this is the life of the navy. The only pleasure is eating; starting with the British, modern navies regard mealtime as second only to shipwrecks in importance. As long as the ship has not sunk, one must ensure a good meal. Moreover, there is no certainty whether we will be able to eat again, as Commander Ito truly has no assurance of that.

However, the recent provocation by the United Fleet greatly unsettled Li Hongzhang. The United Fleet's provocation at Weihaiwei caused a stir in the capital and among the populace, leading to widespread outcry. The court even bypassed Li Hongzhang and issued a strict order to Ding Ruchang: "... Weihai, Dalian Bay, Yantai, and Lushun are crucial points for the Beiyang Navy and the gateway to Dagu. Naval vessels must patrol these locations diligently, maintaining strict vigilance and must not stray far. No ship should be allowed to enter without permission. Should there be any negligence, Ding Ruchang will be severely punished..."

At this time, it was still unknown that the Beiyang Fleet's warships Dingyuan and Zhenyuan, along with 12 other vessels, were escorting five transport ships from Dalian to the mouth of the Yalu River. On the afternoon of the 16th, an army of 4,000 men, 400 horses, and 80 cannons landed in the area from Dayang River mouth to Dagu Mountain, preparing to provide land support for Pyongyang. In the evening, they anchored and camped 12 nautical miles outside of Dadonggou.

However, the leaders of the Qing Reform faction, such as Weng Tonghe, and the deeply influenced Emperor Guangxu, Zaitian, could not tolerate Li Hongzhang's fleet preservationism. The Qing Reformists were almost entirely ignorant of the political, economic, and military disparities between the Qing Dynasty and various foreign nations. They derived a formidable conclusion of "the Qing must prevail" from abstract Confucian doctrines, believing it to be invincible and unbeatable. As for how to achieve victory, that was the responsibility of Li Hongzhang, the CEO of the security company.

One of the major issues brought about by a line formation is that the ships on either side cannot clearly discern the command signals from the flagship in the center, especially when the artillery battle commences and the deck is filled with smoke, making it difficult to effectively direct the fleet to adaptively change formations and tactics.

At 7 o'clock in the morning, the joint fleet arrived near Ocean Island. The small gunboat Chikage, like a hunting dog, patrolled the area and returned with the report "No enemy ships detected." Ito Yuheng issued the command for formation practice, with the First Guerrilla Unit in front and the main fleet behind. The Chikage accompanied by the Seikyo Maru observed from the side, and the entire fleet proceeded towards the mouth of the Yalu River in this formation

However, the commander Ye Zhichao was completely demoralized. At 4:40 PM, he raised a white flag to surrender to *Tu* *Shu*, and later abandoned the city and fled at midnight on the 15th, leaving behind four field guns, six machine guns, 25 mountain guns, 1,160 rifles, various ammunition totaling 550,000 rounds, and a month's worth of rations as spoils of war for the Japanese army

In fact, the significant lesson from the Battle of Lissa is that unarmored ships cannot contend with armored ships. However, due to the Austrian fleet, the victor, employing a line formation, the view that the line formation is more effective became popular after the Battle of Lissa

Two hours later at 11:30, Yoshino sent out a signal: "The East has discovered more than three enemy ships." Three ships, or rather "more than three," almost certainly indicates the main force of the Beiyang Fleet. However, Ito's order was: "First, have a meal." This order can be interpreted in various ways. From a positive perspective, it reflects the demeanor of a general, calm and unhurried; from a negative perspective, it suggests a lack of confidence in the impending great battle, prioritizing a meal first, as one would not want to starve on the road to the underworld. Nevertheless, this is undoubtedly an order characteristic of the navy, as it seems that the navy exists primarily to eat. From a positive perspective, it reflects the demeanor of a general, calm and unhurried; from a negative perspective, it suggests a lack of confidence in the impending great battle, prioritizing a meal first, as one would not want to starve on the road to the underworld. Nevertheless, this is undoubtedly an order characteristic of the navy, as it seems that the navy exists primarily to eat.

However, in 1895, it was unreasonable to expect Li Hongzhang, who could not foresee the history of the following decades, to be held to such standards

However, the Beiyang Fleet made no moves to engage in a decisive battle with the Japanese Navy

However, as Yutaka Ito stated after the war, the Beiyang Fleet indeed had no intention of actively seeking out the main enemy fleet, but it did have plans to search for the straggling Japanese warships in the vast Yellow Sea, gradually weakening the strength of the Combined Fleet. On August 10, the Combined Fleet's operation in Weihaiwei was in vain because the main force of the Beiyang Fleet had gone to the mouth of the Daedong River in Pyongyang to seek an opportunity for battle.

The Beiyang Fleet began a one-hour formation exercise and naval gun firing training at 9:15. By approximately 11:30, they confirmed the presence of eight Japanese warships, and by 12:00, they confirmed twelve Japanese warships, with the timing being almost identical to that of the Japanese Combined Fleet

The Beiyang Fleet, which cost 20 million, is the main asset of Li's Security Co., Ltd. Should the Beiyang Fleet suffer any damage, Li Hongzhang's position as the contractor for the court's security would be undermined. Conversely, as long as the Beiyang Fleet remains intact, it poses a silent threat to the Japanese Combined Fleet. If the army can contain the momentum of the Japanese forces and rely on the mediation of European powers, it is not impossible for Li Zhongtang to navigate through this crisis.

The special detachment consisted of the gunboat Chikage and the converted merchant ship Seikyo Maru. Minister of Military Orders Hayashiyama Yoshiki oversaw the operations on Seikyo Maru in the capacity of a staff officer. At that time, there were no wireless communication devices, and the mission of the Chikage gunboat was to serve as a liaison and communication link between the Minister of Military Orders and the Combined Fleet, as well as to conduct reconnaissance around the battlefield. The Battle of Daitōgō was essentially an encounter battle; neither Hayashiyama Yoshiki nor Itō Yūken anticipated encountering the main force of the Beiyang Fleet, which is why they brought along this cumbersome special detachment. Otherwise, even if Hayashiyama Yoshiki had to personally supervise the battle, he would have chosen a larger and safer official warship.

The naval battle between China and Japan is, in fact, a rather peculiar event. It marks the first decisive battle between steam fleets in history, and it also involves two young navies, two novice fleets. Both navies have a history of only about 20 years. Later, it was said that if the Japanese navy had been a mature navy, it would never have challenged the Qing navy, as the chances of victory were almost nonexistent; conversely, if the Qing navy had been a mature navy, it would not have feared the challenge from the Japanese navy, as the chances of failure were similarly minimal. Both navies have a history of only about 20 years. Later, it was said that if the Japanese navy had been a mature navy, it would never have challenged the Qing navy, as the chances of victory were almost nonexistent; conversely, if the Qing navy had been a mature navy, it would not have feared the challenge from the Japanese navy, as the chances of failure were similarly minimal

On August 10, the United Fleet's provocation against the Beiyang Fleet provided the Qing reformists with the best pretext to attack Li Hongzhang and Ding Ruchang

Starting in August, the Combined Fleet began escorting the remaining troops of the 5th Division. After September, preparations were made for the direct transportation of the headquarters of the 1st Army and the 3rd Division to Incheon. However, the still-active Beiyang Fleet remained a significant threat. To address this threat, the Chief of Staff of the Combined Fleet, Yuheng Ito, who had been perceived as somewhat timid and hesitant to engage in battle, sent the Minister of Military Affairs, Sakayama Yoshiki, to Korea in early September aboard the warship Yawata to oversee operations. He arrived at Changzhilu on the 6th and met with the Combined Fleet. After arriving in Korea, Sakayama assumed the alias of a staff officer and transferred to the merchant ship Seikyo Maru, which was armed with only one cannon, and this arrangement remained unchanged thereafter. The presence of the top official from the naval command directly overseeing operations on the battlefield was unprecedented in the history of world navies, indicating the high regard that the Japanese military and navy held for maritime supremacy.

Therefore, theoretically speaking, the formation of the Beiyang Fleet appears to be more reasonable than that of the Combined Fleet

Isn't it common to hear nonsense like "offer one month's salary, and you can go fight Taiwan; offer one year's salary, and you can go fight the United States"?

At 12:05, the flagship Matsushima raised the battle flag and made slight adjustments to the formation. A very minor adjustment was made, with the First Guerrilla Squadron reducing speed to close the distance with the main fleet, while the Akagi and the Seikyo Maru shifted from the left side of the original formation to the right side, which was not facing the enemy. The rest continued in a single line ahead formation, heading east.

As for the Beiyang Fleet, the level of training is clearly questionable. More critically, all signals and signal language have not been translated into Chinese, and commanding ordinary soldiers in English during actual combat, aside from the most vivid imagination, can only be described as the most serious negligence and dereliction of duty on the part of Ding Ruchang and the officers of the Beiyang Fleet

However, the issue lies in the fact that, unlike the so-called "most terrifying" missile nuclear weapons on the launch pad, a fleet that is deliberately preserved but objectively poses no threat to the enemy is not a formidable force. Countries that adhere to the doctrine of "fleet in being" have all learned this lesson, as evidenced by Germany during World War I and Japan during the Pacific War.