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During this period, the military strength of the northern states was generally stronger than that of the southern states. The northern countries were predominantly ruled by minority ethnic regimes, and their initial armies were primarily composed of cavalry. As time progressed, the number of infantry gradually increased, but the main force of the army remained cavalry, with a significant number of cavalry deployed in battles. For instance, Fu Jian of the Former Qin mobilized 270,000 cavalry during his southern campaign; Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei crossed the Huai River with 600,000 cavalry, advancing directly towards the Yangtze River; in the Battle of Zhongli between Liang and Wei, the Wei army consisted of 800,000 troops, including 240,000 cavalry. It can be said that the scale of cavalry warfare during this period far exceeded that of previous eras.

The reason the Mongolian army was able to dominate both Europe and Asia lies entirely in its excellent cavalry

By the time of the Qing Dynasty, the Qing believed that they had established their nation through cavalry and archery. The Jurchen and Mongolian cavalry at the time of their founding were considered traditional cavalry, with little development. Coupled with a lack of emphasis on firearms, this ultimately led to our country being subjected to arbitrary bullying by foreign powers. It was already the era of firearms, and the status of cavalry was further diminished. With the advent of machine guns and trench warfare, cavalry essentially lost its position in the military and gradually withdrew from the military stage. Only with the emergence of armored mechanized units did cavalry become a thing of the past, used only in certain ceremonial occasions.

Song, Liao, Western Xia, and Jin Dynasties

The excellent military equipment of the Mongolian cavalry is clearly documented in historical literature and artifacts unearthed from the Yuan Dynasty. According to the accounts of Plano Carpini, the Mongolian cavalry was equipped with 2 to 3 bows, 3 large quivers filled with arrows, an axe, and ropes for dragging weapons. The leaders carried a curved sword with a sharp tip but only one side sharpened, housed in a beautifully crafted scabbard. The horses they rode were all equipped with armor, and some soldiers' horses also had armor.

In this era, the Mongolian cavalry became a symbol of terror in the eyes of their enemies, as the Mongols pushed cavalry tactics to the pinnacle of the cold weapon age. The advantages of cavalry, such as long-distance charges, flanking maneuvers, and encirclement, were maximized to their limits

The foundation of the Mongolian army's operational victories lies not in quantity but in quality, characterized by a streamlined and singular organizational structure. Typically, the Mongolian army is smaller in scale compared to its primary adversaries. The largest army assembled by Genghis Khan for the conquest of Persia numbered only 240,000. Subsequently, the forces used to conquer Russia and the entirety of Eastern and Central Europe never exceeded 150,000. The streamlined organizational structure is a notable feature of the Mongolian army. A standard Mongolian field army consists of 3 cavalry divisions. Each division comprises 10,000 cavalrymen, roughly equivalent to a modern cavalry division, with each cavalry division including 10 cavalry companies, each consisting of 100 men; each cavalry company is further divided into 10 squads, each containing 10 men. All cavalrymen typically engage in mounted combat, and when their horses collapse, some soldiers must take cover behind the cavalry to shoot arrows from the ground. The Mongolians did not implement significant reforms in weaponry but innovated in the methods of weapon usage at that time.

The Mongols implemented a system of military organization based on units of one hundred and one thousand, with a policy of universal conscription and hereditary military officers. They were prepared for battle when mounted and engaged in pastoral activities when dismounted. During wartime, they equipped themselves with weapons and armor, while in peacetime, they lived as ordinary herders. To ensure the combat effectiveness of their army, the Mongols often conducted large-scale hunts to train their troops, and children were specifically trained from a young age in horseback riding and archery. With outstanding tacticians such as Genghis Khan, Jebe, Subutai, and Tolui leading them, the Mongols became the most powerful military force in the world at that time, conquering unprecedented vast territories. They eliminated the Song, Jin, and Western Xia in the east, defeated the Khwarezmian Empire in the west, conquered the Russian steppes, vanquished the Western coalition forces, and advanced all the way to the banks of the Danube.

The chest armor of the Mongolian cavalry consists of 4 parts: one piece extends from the thigh to the neck, crafted according to the shape of the human body; another piece runs from the neck to the waist, connecting with the front armor plates, with an iron plate fixed on each shoulder. Each arm is also covered by a piece of armor that extends from the shoulder to the wrist, and another piece covers each leg. All these armor pieces are connected together with buckles. Each arm is also covered by a piece of armor that extends from the shoulder to the wrist, and another piece covers each leg. All these armor pieces are connected together with buckles

The ethnic minority regimes established in the north all possessed formidable military strength. The army primarily relied on cavalry for combat. The armies of Liao and Jin placed great emphasis on the mobility of cavalry in warfare, with each regular soldier typically equipped with several warhorses (for instance, a Liao soldier had three horses). This provided them with significant maneuverability. In the Battle of Youzhou between Liao and Song, the Liao army, leveraging the flat terrain and the mobility of their cavalry, successively defeated Song generals Cao Bin and Pan Mei. The Jin troops also excelled in cavalry and were adept at field battles, historically noted as "At the beginning of Jin, there was no power stronger in the world than this." The Jin state was known for its famous Guai Zi horses, which were used in battle with infantry as the main force and Guai Zi horses executing flanking attacks, giving them a considerable advantage against the Song army on the plains.

Mongol Era

Warring States Period: (including the Qin Dynasty)

Since firearms did not have cavalry for a short period, cavalry, by definition, refers to troops that fight on horseback. Its strengths lie in its strong mobility and impact capabilities. Our country is one of the earliest nations in the world to have cavalry. Before the Spring and Autumn period, warfare in our country primarily relied on chariot warfare, with infantry playing a supportive role. The number of chariots became a symbol of military strength, and there was essentially no cavalry as a distinct military branch. By the Spring and Autumn period, infantry began to rise, and armies became balanced between chariots and infantry, with a small number of cavalry emerging in various countries, mixed with chariots and infantry, serving merely as an insignificant auxiliary force. By the Warring States period, with the expansion of the scale of warfare, the diversification of tactics, and the need to engage with the nomadic tribes in the north, cavalry officially emerged as an independent military branch on the stage of warfare. After thinking for a long time, Yuwen Feng realized that the only way to deal with cavalry was to use cavalry against cavalry.

Ming and Qing Dynasties and Subsequent Eras

According to the "History of Ancient Chinese Clothing," during the Yuan and He periods, there was a type of armor known as the feather-root armor, which was made by connecting armor plates with hoof tendons and feather roots, rendering it impervious to arrows. There were also armor pieces resembling hooves. Mongolian cavalry often wore helmets. Additionally, there was a type of helmet shaped like a hat that did not cover the eyebrows, but featured an extremely large nose guard, which appeared quite peculiar.

The history entered the Warring States period, where warfare transitioned from the rigid chariot tactics of earlier years to more mobile and flexible combat methods. Cavalry emerged as an independent military branch, and major states established cavalry units, with countries like Qin and Zhao boasting of having "a thousand chariots and ten thousand horses." The military operations gradually shifted from being primarily infantry and cavalry to a balanced emphasis on both chariots and cavalry. The first to undergo significant reform was the State of Zhao. Located in the north, Zhao was bordered by the nomadic tribes of Loufan, Linhu, and the Xiongnu, suffering greatly from their incursions. The traditional chariot and infantry of Zhao were at a disadvantage when facing the agile and swift cavalry of the nomads. To change this situation and strengthen the nation, King Wuling of Zhao implemented the reform of "Hu clothing and cavalry archery" within the country. He declared, "From now on, I will teach the people to wear Hu clothing and practice cavalry archery," reducing the number of chariot troops and increasing the cavalry. He required the traditional wide-sleeved garments of the Han people to be replaced with the tight-fitting attire of the Hu people, facilitating cavalry archery. From this point onward, the status of cavalry gradually rose among the states of the Central Plains, becoming a major force in the military. Zhao, equipped with this powerful cavalry, became a strong state capable of contending with Qin in the later stages of the Warring States period.

The horse's armor consists of 5 parts, with one piece of armor on each side of the horse, extending up to the horse's head; another piece is placed on the horse's hindquarters, connected to the side pieces, with a hole left in this piece for the horse's tail to pass through; the final piece of armor is located on the horse's chest. A metal plate is placed on the horse's forehead, secured to the side pieces of armor.

During this period, a large number of northern nomadic tribes rose to prominence, posing a threat to the Han dynasty. The elite forces of these ethnic minority armies were primarily cavalry, and the development of cavalry once again reached a peak

During the Ming Dynasty, cavalry primarily operated in conjunction with other military units and were equipped with firearms. The renowned general Qi Jiguang established the chariot camp, which represented a method of combined operations involving infantry, chariots, and cavalry. Sun Chengzong's "Chariot Camp Response Compilation" further explored this tactical approach. A strategy was also developed that involved first bombarding with firearms (firepower preparation), followed by a cavalry charge, with infantry advancing thereafter. (This resembles the tactics of the Napoleonic era, doesn't it?)

The military attire of the Mongol Empire and the Yuan Dynasty is renowned for its intricacy. Before Genghis Khan unified the various tribes of the Mongolian Plateau, they used armor made from shark skin and feather quills. Later, they adopted copper and iron armor lined with cowhide.

The Han Dynasty marked the golden age of cavalry development in China. Due to the necessity of engaging in warfare against nomadic tribes such as the Xiongnu, the cavalry rapidly expanded. The military's approach to combat shifted from a balanced emphasis on chariots and cavalry to a dominance of cavalry over chariots, making cavalry the decisive force in determining victory or defeat

After the Ming and Qing dynasties, firearms underwent significant development. With the emergence of specialized firearm units and artillery, the status of cavalry gradually declined. After the Ming dynasty, there were few instances of cavalry serving as a primary strategic force, and there is no need to elaborate further on this matter.

First, regarding the Song Dynasty, it was a period in Chinese history characterized by a lack of military prowess. Due to the loss of the horse-producing regions in the northwest, which had emerged during the Later Tang and Five Dynasties periods, the Song Dynasty was unable to meet its cavalry needs, whether through purchasing horses from border areas, exchanging goods for horses, or establishing monitoring herds. Consequently, it never possessed a strong cavalry force. The situation worsened during the Southern Song period, where even one-fifth of the cavalry in the Imperial Guard (the emperor's elite troops) lacked horses. The Song Dynasty favored displaying formations, thus cavalry was mostly deployed within the formations, primarily positioned around large infantry formations to provide support or protect the flanks. For instance, Emperor Taizong's "Pingrong Wanquan Formation" involved the main infantry combined with chariots, arranged in a dense formation in the center, while cavalry was stationed at the front, rear, and sides to serve as sentinels and provide cover against enemy cavalry formations. The infantry phalanx served as the main force, with cavalry reinforcing the flanks. In fact, in such formations, cavalry became an auxiliary force to the infantry, utilized to achieve victory over the enemy.

The Two Han Dynasties

In the Peterhof Palace, there are remnants of armor from Mongolian knights, with the inner layer made of cowhide and the outer layer covered in iron armor, the plates interconnected like fish scales, impervious to arrows. The reliefs depicting the Yongtai at Juyong Pass from the Yuan Dynasty feature round armor, fish-scale armor, and willow-leaf armor. According to "A Brief Account of the Black Tartars": "Their military equipment includes willow-leaf armor, round armor (six layers of leather), sturdy sheep-horn bows, sound arrows, and camel bone arrows"

According to Plano Carpini, the armor of the Mongolian cavalry is crafted with remarkable precision. Taking the lamellar armor as an example, they first create several iron plates, each measuring one finger in width and one palm in length, and drill 8 small holes in each plate. They place 3 sturdy and narrow leather straps as a base, then layer these iron plates one on top of another. They use fine leather threads to pass through the aforementioned small holes, binding the plates to the 3 leather straps. At the top, they tie another leather thread, thus securely connecting these plates together. In this manner, they create a strip of iron plates and then connect these strips to form various parts of the armor. They assemble these parts to create armor that protects both the person and the horse. They polish the iron plates to a high shine, to the extent that reflections of human figures can be seen on the plates. They assemble these parts to create armor that protects both the person and the horse. They polish the iron plates to a high shine, to the extent that reflections of human figures can be seen on the plates

In the early 13th century, a unique cavalry force was active on the vast grasslands of northern China. This Mongolian cavalry broke free from the constraints of traditional European military thought and established an unprecedented grand empire in the world. The formation of this army is attributed to the extraordinary talents of Genghis Khan. It was he who transformed a nation composed of numerous tribes into an invincible military organization; it was also due to his outstanding organizational and command abilities that the leaders of the Mongolian tribes honored him with the title of Genghis Khan, meaning extraordinary leader. The term "Khan" originally referred to a Mongolian nomadic tribe or a field army, and later became synonymous with "a vast number." The defeated enemies could never believe that they had been conquered by a nomadic tribe, and thus they persistently and mistakenly maintained that the Mongolian army was merely a large but undisciplined mob, claiming that their victories were solely due to numerical superiority. In fact, the secret to the Mongolian army's success lay precisely in Genghis Khan's possession of an unprecedentedly well-organized, well-trained, and extremely disciplined army.

During the Han Dynasty, in order to change the unfavorable and passive situation in the war against the Xiongnu, the Han Dynasty vigorously developed cavalry. By the time of Emperor Wu, they were able to deploy over 100,000 cavalry for active offensives. The war against the Xiongnu lasted for several decades, during which renowned generals such as Wei Qing and Huo Qubing repeatedly led tens of thousands of cavalry, employing tactics such as flanking maneuvers and deep incursions into enemy territory to achieve significant victories over the Xiongnu. In 119 BC, Emperor Wu dispatched Wei Qing and Huo Qubing, each commanding 50,000 cavalry, supported by hundreds of thousands of infantry and over 100,000 horses for logistics. Huo Qubing's forces advanced over 2,000 li into Xiongnu territory, achieving a great victory at Mount Wolf Juxu (in present-day Mongolia) and returning home, which became a celebrated tale.

This is an era of turmoil, characterized by frequent wars, particularly during the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Northern and Southern Dynasties periods, when numerous northern nomadic tribes took control of the Central Plains. The use of cavalry reached new heights, with all parties involved in the conflict (mainly from the north) extensively employing cavalry. Cavalry became the most important military unit on the battlefield, and China's cavalry also evolved into the era of heavy cavalry.

The cavalry of this era was primarily composed of northern ethnic minority cavalry, whose main weapons in battle included bows and arrows, sabers, and also specialized weapons such as the wolf-toothed club. (The Jin people seemed to favor such weapons, as there was a popular saying at the time: "They have Jin Wuzhu, I have General Yue; they have the crooked horse, I have the Mazha knife; they have the wolf-toothed club, I have the crown of heaven.") At that time, the cavalry began to lean towards light armor, wearing minimal protective gear to gain greater mobility, yet all nations still maintained heavy armored units. (The Jin people seemed to favor such weapons, as there was a popular saying at the time: "They have Jin Wuzhu, I have General Yue; they have the crooked horse, I have the Mazha knife; they have the wolf-toothed club, I have the crown of heaven.") The cavalry of that time began to favor light armor, wearing minimal protective gear to gain greater mobility, but all nations still had heavy armored troops, such as the Western Xia cavalry known as "Pingxia Iron Hawk" (its infantry was called "Hengshan Buzai"), which was renowned for its strong combat effectiveness due to its heavy armor and excellent horses.

Yuwen Feng admires the Mongolian cavalry of Genghis Khan the most

An important achievement of this era was the establishment of the official horse management system. In order to counter the Xiongnu, the Han Dynasty developed cavalry and instituted a system for horse breeding. During the reigns of Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing, the "Horse Replenishment Order" was promulgated to encourage the public to raise horses through exemption from corvée labor. Specialized horse management agencies were established at both central and local levels. The central government appointed the Grand Master of Horses (known as Bi Ma Wen) to oversee this, while local officials called Horse Attendants were responsible for the management. These officials were tasked with the care of horses for military use. From the early Han period to the reign of Emperor Wu, there were over 400,000 horses in stables. This system ensured a substantial supply of horses for the Han Dynasty's military campaigns against the Xiongnu.

First, regarding the Song Dynasty, it was a period in Chinese history characterized by a lack of military prowess. Due to the loss of the horse-producing regions in the northwest, which had emerged during the Later Tang and Five Dynasties, the Song Dynasty was unable to meet its cavalry needs, whether through purchasing horses from border areas, exchanging goods for horses, or establishing pastoral supervision. Consequently, it never possessed a strong cavalry force. The situation worsened during the Southern Song period, where even one-fifth of the cavalry in the Imperial Guard (the emperor's elite troops) lacked horses. The Song Dynasty favored displaying formations, thus cavalry was mostly deployed within the formations, primarily surrounding large infantry formations to provide support or protect the flanks. For instance, Emperor Taizong's "Pingrong Wanquan Formation" involved the main infantry combined with chariots, arranged in a dense formation in the center, while cavalry was positioned at the front, rear, and sides to serve as guards and cover against enemy cavalry formations. The main force was the infantry phalanx, with cavalry used to reinforce the flanks. In fact, in such formations, cavalry became an auxiliary force to the infantry, with the core infantry formations being essential for achieving victory.

Three Kingdoms, Jin, and the Southern and Northern Dynasties

Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties period

When discussing the development of cavalry during the Han Dynasty, one must mention the cavalry of the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu were a nomadic people from the north, renowned for their equestrian skills and archery, with a population of 300,000 skilled horsemen known as "those who control the bow" during the early Han period, constantly posing a threat to the northern borders of the Han Dynasty. The Xiongnu were typical Asian light cavalry; as a nomadic people, they grew up on horseback, excelling in mounted archery. They were highly skilled in horsemanship and archery, wearing only light leather armor, which made them very agile. The Han general Huo Qubing noted in his "Memorial on Military Affairs" that the Xiongnu possessed three significant advantages over the Han army: first, their ability to traverse mountains and valleys, which Chinese horses could not match; second, their proficiency in navigating difficult terrain while both charging and shooting, which Chinese cavalry could not achieve; and third, their endurance in adverse weather conditions, remaining untroubled by thirst and fatigue, unlike the Chinese soldiers. This highlights the considerable advantages of cavalry over charioteers, as charioteers could only exert their power on flat plains, while cavalry could engage in combat in more confined terrains, making them more mobile and flexible.

A significant development during this period was the invention of the stirrup. The earliest stirrups in our country were unearthed during the Western Jin Dynasty, indicating that stirrups existed in China at least by the Jin period. (However, some claim that stirrups were first invented by Europeans.) The stirrup can be considered a groundbreaking invention that greatly advanced human civilization. Militarily, the emergence of the stirrup made close combat for cavalry easier, providing a point of leverage, and facilitated long-distance marches for cavalry, reducing fatigue. This allowed for a more effective utilization of the cavalry's advantages in mobility and striking power. In the West, the invention of the stirrup led to the emergence of medieval Western heavy cavalry and knights. (A large and seemingly useless entity.) During this period, cavalry was primarily composed of heavy cavalry, with both horse and rider clad in armor, providing excellent protection and significant impact against infantry. The heavy cavalry of that time had strong defensive capabilities, and aside from bows and arrows, (a large and seemingly useless entity) heavy cavalry was predominant. The heavy cavalry was well-armored, and their weapons, aside from bows and arrows, (regardless of the era, this has always been the primary weapon of Eastern cavalry) included long weapons that had better penetration, such as the cavalry spear known as "lance" (also called "spear + shaft"). The halberd gradually fell out of use, becoming merely a ceremonial display. Short swords also became standard weapons for cavalry, and compared to the previous generation's ring-headed swords, the swords of this period had wider blades, with the blade tip changing from a trapezoidal shape to a sharp front and slanted back, making them more suitable for actual combat.

During the Han Dynasty, cavalry developed and grew stronger, becoming the main force of the army and replacing the position of chariots. Within the cavalry, there were already distinctions between light cavalry and heavy cavalry. Light cavalry typically wore no armor, primarily wielding bows and arrows, and were mounted on relatively small horses. Heavy cavalry, on the other hand, wore armor and were equipped with close-combat weapons such as halberds, spears, and ring-headed swords, riding larger horses for charges into battle. With advancements in smelting technology during the Han Dynasty, a long iron sword with a ring handle, suitable for mounted combat, emerged. This sword had a thick spine and a sharp edge, making it ideal for slashing, and became an important weapon for cavalry. Generally speaking, the main weapons of Han cavalry included: spears, swords, halberds, bows, and crossbows (arm-stretched crossbows). During this period, the tactics of cavalry as a mobile force also developed, with the Han army extensively employing long-distance raids and flanking maneuvers in battles against the Xiongnu.

The Tang Dynasty was founded through military prowess, and Emperor Taizong Li Shimin was particularly skilled in cavalry tactics. His famous six steeds are known as the "Six Steeds of Zhao Ling." Therefore, the Tang Dynasty, especially in its early years, placed great emphasis on the development of cavalry. From the onset of its military campaigns, the Tang established a comprehensive system for horse management to prepare for military use. The Tang set up numerous monitoring pastures in border regions, managed by the Minister of Imperial Horses. Pastures with over 5,000 horses were classified as upper monitoring, those with 3,000 as middle monitoring, and those below that as lower monitoring. They appointed pasture supervisors and conducted annual assessments for each monitoring pasture. From the reign of Emperor Taizong during the Zhenguan period to the fortieth year of the Linde period, the number of official horses raised exceeded 700,000, with eight workshops and forty-eight monitoring pastures, occupying over 1,000 acres of land. The Tang Dynasty established numerous monitoring pastures in border regions, managed by the Minister of Imperial Horses. Pastures with over 5,000 horses were classified as upper monitoring, those with 3,000 as middle monitoring, and those below that as lower monitoring. They appointed pasture supervisors and conducted annual assessments for each monitoring pasture. From the reign of Emperor Taizong during the Zhenguan period to the fortieth year of the Linde period, the number of official horses raised exceeded 700,000, with eight workshops and forty-eight monitoring pastures, occupying over 1,000 acres of land

Song, Liao, Western Xia, and Jin Dynasties

The upper part of the helmet is made of iron or steel, while the section that protects the neck and throat is made of leather

Superior military equipment

During this period, cavalry had established its position within the military. In this era, both cavalry and infantry were emphasized. Although the scale of cavalry in various countries was not as large as during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, cavalry remained an important force and received considerable attention

During this period, the development of cavalry equipment and tactics did not see significant advancements; however, it was no longer as focused on heavily armored cavalry as in the Southern and Northern Dynasties. Although there were still armored cavalry in the army, the primary force consisted of light cavalry. The main role of the cavalry was to leverage its mobility, while frontal offense and defense relied more on infantry.

The Mongolian cavalry archers were formidable enough to ensure their victories in open battles. When faced with sturdy city walls, the Mongolians possessed a powerful siege weapon, namely the giant cannons imported from the Western Regions. In the face of the massive projectiles launched by these oversized catapults, even the strongest walls seemed as fragile as paper. Historical records state that these giant cannons "were fired with a sound that shook the heavens and the earth, and whatever they struck was utterly destroyed, penetrating seven feet into the ground." It was with this weapon that the Mongolians captured the city of Xiangyang in 1273, after years of unsuccessful assaults. At that time, the range of the Mongolian catapults was only 100 meters, while the moat of Xiangyang was 150 meters wide. Later, the Mongolians invited several craftsmen from Persia to improve the catapults. The records indicate that these giant cannons "were fired with a sound that shook the heavens and the earth, and whatever they struck was utterly destroyed, penetrating seven feet into the ground." It was with this weapon that the Mongolians captured the city of Xiangyang in 1273, after years of unsuccessful assaults. At that time, the range of the Mongolian catapults was only 100 meters, while the moat of Xiangyang was 150 meters wide. Subsequently, the Mongolians brought in several craftsmen from Persia to enhance the catapults, increasing their range to approximately 180 to 200 meters. Thus, the Mongolians referred to this cannon as the "Xiangyang Cannon" and the "Huaihu Cannon." However, in the 12th century, only the Mongolians utilized the Huaihu Cannon on a large scale in warfare. The improved catapults had a range of about 180 to 200 meters, leading the Mongolians to call this cannon the "Xiangyang Cannon" and the "Huaihu Cannon." Nevertheless, in the 12th century, only the Mongolians employed the Huaihu Cannon extensively on the battlefield. The Mongolians, through their campaigns in the north and south, achieved near-constant victories, and the possession of these giant cannons, in addition to their cavalry, was a significant factor in their success.

During the Warring States period, cavalry began to be used extensively in warfare. The State of Zhao employed infantry and cavalry to attack Linhu, while Loufan "conquered a thousand miles." Li Mu utilized over ten thousand cavalry in conjunction with infantry and chariots to decisively defeat the Xiongnu, annihilating over one hundred thousand enemies. The State of Qin was also renowned for its excellent cavalry. In the Battle of Changping between Qin and Zhao, the Qin general Bai Qi used five thousand elite cavalry to cut off the Zhao army, completely annihilating them in this engagement. The cavalry of both the Zhao and Qin states were equipped with complete saddles and harnesses, but the absence of stirrups made close combat on horseback quite disadvantageous. Therefore, the primary weapons of the cavalry at that time were bows and arrows, with mounted archery being the main form of combat, supplemented by a small number of bronze swords and halberds. (Swords were prone to breaking during slashing, hence the emphasis on halberds.) Additionally, specialized horse armor had already emerged during this period, designed to protect warhorses. Evidence from excavated terracotta warriors indicates that the Qin army had adopted a mixed formation of chariots, infantry, and cavalry. The cavalry figurines predominantly held bows, wore small hats, fitted waist garments with narrow sleeves, short armor, and short leather boots, all of which facilitated mounted archery. This period also saw discussions on the use of cavalry in military strategy. The "Art of War by Sun Bin" stated, "In perilous situations, increase your cavalry," highlighting the crucial role of over four hundred thousand troops. During the Chu-Han Contention, Liu Bang also trained cavalry using the surrendered Qin generals Li Bi and Luo Jia to counter Xiang Yu's cavalry. Han Xin similarly employed two thousand light cavalry to launch a surprise attack on the enemy's main camp in the Battle of Zhao.