10. The Fierce Battle at Changxiao

If the allied forces of Oda and Tokugawa had deployed a dense formation of polearm troops on the front line, Takeda Katsuyori would likely have refrained from launching a direct cavalry charge. However, based on reconnaissance, he believed that the enemy's front line consisted of gunmen. Given that firearms have a slow rate of fire and a limited range, it is generally the practice to send cavalry for a rapid assault to disrupt the gunner formations, followed by infantry to expand the gains and tear the enemy's position apart. This explains why Katsuyori seemingly recklessly initiated multiple frontal charges; he did not fully consider the lethal impact of the concentrated use of firearms, nor did he recognize that, in addition to the enemy's gunners, there were also shallow trenches and horse defenses in front of them. Any commander who had not experienced a similar situation would likely have made the same tactical decisions, and thus later generations should not be overly critical of Katsuyori.

In order to lure the Takeda army into action, Nobunaga also considered sending his trusted minister Sakuuma Nobumori to feign defection. Meanwhile, Tokugawa vassal Sakai Tadatsugu suggested dispatching a small detachment to take a roundabout route and launch a surprise attack on Mount Tsubakiyama, which would surely relieve the siege of Nagashino Castle. Nobunaga scolded, saying, "I want to annihilate the main force of the Takeda army in one battle; the small Nagashino is of no consequence to the overall situation!" Sakai Tadatsugu retreated, feeling indignant and resentful.

So, are there any methods to enhance the firing speed of cannons? In fact, such methods do exist, with the earliest records dating back to the sixteenth century in Europe. It is highly likely that this technology was also transmitted to Japan alongside the introduction of cannons.

The seasoned generals such as Shanxian Changjing and Machang Xinfang instinctively sensed that this battle was ominous, and thus suggested that the entire army retreat to Jia and Xin to await further developments. This suggestion was beneficial for the preservation of the Takeda forces, but it would deal a fatal blow to Katsuyori's personal prestige. Nagasaka Diao Xianzai and Akibu Oki were staunch advocates for battle, as they were originally important ministers brought by Katsuyori from the Suwa clan (Katsuyori had originally been adopted into the Suwa family). Their loyalty was dedicated solely to Katsuyori, rather than to the Kai Takeda clan, which was led by the young Shingen.

Relying on the valiant efforts of generals such as Sakai Tadatsugu and Mizuno Tadashige, the Tokugawa forces achieved a minor victory in their initial battle, killing hundreds of Takeda soldiers. However, they were soon frightened and retreated into the castle to defend themselves when Masayori's horse marker appeared on the battlefield.

By utilizing firearms and horse barricades, Nobunaga successfully obstructed and even inflicted significant casualties on the cavalry of the Takeda clan. However, after the initial charge, a large number of Takeda infantry advanced to the front lines. In the face of the densely arranged infantry, the firearms behind the horse barricades were expected to exert their maximum lethality. Nevertheless, in reality, the effectiveness of the firearms diminished increasingly over time

Ultimately, this practical technology must have been invented in actual combat by those who used it, rather than by the commanding general Nobunaga, who sat behind the lines. Even though Nobunaga enjoyed using firearms and occasionally practiced shooting targets in the main castle, he could not have conceived of the three-stage firing technique out of thin air. However, his ability to learn and innovate in its application is precisely where Nobunaga's unmatched strength lies

Thus, the two armies quickly transitioned from one-sided slaughter to close combat. By around 1 PM, Yamashiro Masakage led the remnants of the small Yamata and Kanri units to attack the enemy formation from the side, causing the forces of Shibata, Niwa, and Hashiba to retreat in defeat. Immediately following this, the valiant Yamashiro Masakage directed another unit to assault the main formation of the Tokugawa army. The Tokugawa general Honda Tadakatsu, pointing at the front line where a warrior clad in white armor and wearing a golden shovel-shaped helmet stood, shouted, "That man is Yamashiro Masakage!" He ordered all firearms to aim and fire. After a loud bang, Yamashiro Masakage suddenly fell to the ground.

Imagawa Ujizane is the son of Imagawa Yoshimoto, and he should have been filled with animosity upon meeting Nobunaga, as they were supposed to be enemies. However, the situation has changed; living under the protection of others, Ujizane dared not show even a hint of resentment. Meanwhile, Nobunaga, in order to counter the relentless invasions by Takeda Katsuyori into Mino, Mikawa, and Totomi, needed to win over this former lord of Suruga to rally support. The two engaged in pleasant conversation, with Ujizane presenting two famous incense burners, Senbird and Soji. Nobunaga pretended to graciously accept one while returning the other. They even agreed to play cuju (a form of football) together at Shakko-ji, truly enjoying each other's company.

In the preceding section, I have consistently used the term "mounted samurai" instead of "cavalry," because, in fact, there were no clearly organized cavalry units during the Warring States period. As mentioned earlier, most samurai were tied to the land, and their weapons and equipment were personally acquired, funded by the stipends or annual tributes from their territories. Therefore, only higher-ranking samurai could afford to keep horses. The samurai within the Takeda domain could not all be brought to the frontline at Nagashino, as it was necessary to leave garrison troops in various locations. Consequently, the mounted samurai who arrived at Nagashino would not represent the full strength of the Takeda clan, and it is likely that their numbers were around three thousand.

Oda Nobunaga, at Sekigahara, set up horse defenses along the Renko River. This was done not only to facilitate the use of firearms but also to deliberately feign weakness in order to lull Takeda Katsuyori into complacency. Upon hearing of Nobunaga's formation, Katsuyori laughed loudly, believing that Nobunaga was afraid of the impact of the Takeda cavalry, which led him to adopt a defensive posture, unwilling to engage in a decisive battle with his main forces, and instead planning for a prolonged standoff to wear down the Takeda army. Under these circumstances, Katsuyori finally mobilized his main forces to directly attack Sekigahara, not realizing that he had fallen into a trap set by the enemy.

This battlefield is Shitaragahara. Nobunaga first established his formation at Shitaragahara, and even set up horse defenses, demonstrating the thoroughness of his pre-battle preparations. The Takeda army rashly entered the opponent's home ground to engage in battle, and even before the fight began, they were already at a disadvantage in terms of strategy.

The reason Shingen left such a last testament was due to his concern that Katsuyori's authority would be difficult to command, and his fear that his death might incite turmoil within the country. Therefore, he urged his son to first stabilize domestic affairs and build up strength. However, just as after Imagawa Yoshimoto's death, the Imagawa clan focused solely on internal governance, resulting in the rebellion of Tokugawa Ieyasu in the West Mikawa region, the death of the clan leader could lead to a retraction of expansion momentum. This might create a misconception among external factions that the Takeda clan's power was waning, and that its most glorious era would be buried alongside the genius Shingen. Thus, Katsuyori's decision to disregard his father's last wishes and continue military campaigns westward was also driven by his own unavoidable difficulties.

Having said so much above, it seems that Nobunaga's use of firearms to attack the Takeda army is entirely an unrealistic notion. However, after analyzing the situation of the Oda and Tokugawa forces, we must turn our attention to analyze the Takeda army. The Takeda clan's cavalry is reputed to be invincible in the world; therefore, among the 15,000 troops led by Katsuyori near Nagashino, how many of them are cavalry? What is the level of organization among these cavalry units?

The three allied spear units stationed near the Horse Defense Barrier immediately retreated behind it upon being attacked by the Takeda army. Almost simultaneously, a thunderous explosion erupted from behind the barrier, and amidst the rising smoke, cannonballs flew chaotically. The Takeda cavalry, unaware of what was happening, were struck down one after another, falling from their mounts. In an instant, hundreds of brave warriors under the command of Yamashiro Masakage met their end.

The death of Yamanaka Chōkei, one of the "Four Ministers," marked the true beginning of the nightmare for the Takeda army. Seeing the enemy's morale plummet due to the loss of their brave general, Oda Nobunaga ordered his entire army to charge out from behind the horse barricades, initiating the final assault. The Tokugawa forces also launched a flanking attack. Many renowned generals of the Takeda army fell on the battlefield of Shitaragawa, including not only Obata Nobushige and Yamanaka Chōkei, but also Yokota Bichū no Kami Takamatsu, Sanada Genta no Sakaemon Nobutsuna, Sanada Hyōbu Masakatsu, Tsuchiya Uemon Masanari, and Kōsaka Gengorō Masasumi, among dozens of others.

The Contest Outside Changxiao City

In April of this year, Takeda Katsuyori informed his generals during the memorial service marking the third anniversary of his father Shingen's death that he intended to mobilize troops to attack Mikawa Province, and then advance westward to fulfill Shingen's wish to enter Kyoto. Analyzing this strategic decision, it is evident that Katsuyori, being young and impetuous, was far more impatient than his father. He was unwilling to take the long route along the Tōkaidō from Suruga and Totomi to Kyoto, opting instead to launch a direct assault from Iwamurakuchi, targeting Mino and Mikawa, aiming to eliminate the main forces of the Oda and Tokugawa clans in one fell swoop. This strategy was somewhat overambitious, yet it was not entirely devoid of hope for success; the future of the Takeda clan would depend entirely on Katsuyori's specific military strategies.

First, considering the issue from a strategic perspective, Takeda Katsuyori, having returned to his original clan as a member of the Takeda family, was not explicitly appointed by his father to inherit the position of family head, but merely served as the "guardian" of his son Nobukatsu. His authority was insufficient to command respect. In the face of many arrogant veteran generals left by Shingen, he needed to win a decisive battle to solidify his position. Therefore, he had no choice but to frequently send troops eastward in search of an opportunity to engage in a decisive battle with the main forces of Oda and Tokugawa. The Battle of Nagashino was actually a good opportunity; if he had heeded the advice of Baba and Naito and hastily retreated, the blame for a fruitless campaign would likely fall upon Katsuyori himself, making it difficult for him to regain his former prestige. Thus, although the Takeda army was outnumbered and the soldiers weary, the Oda and Tokugawa allied forces were numerous and well-prepared. From a purely military standpoint, Katsuyori should have retreated, but from a political perspective, he tragically had no choice but to engage in this battle.

At almost the same time that the two armies engaged at Settsu Plain, Sakai Tadatsugu's surprise attack unit arrived at the foot of Mount Tsubame. After a fierce assault, Takeda's defending general, Takeda Hyōkō, was killed in action, and the fortress fell. Upon learning of the rescue, Okudaira Sadamasa seized the opportunity to break out from Nagashino and drove back the besieging enemy forces

Thus, the country of Hanoi was completely pacified. Nobunaga ordered the destruction of all the castles and fortifications throughout the land to prevent any petty individuals from rising up again. In fact, the true purpose of this military campaign was not to eliminate Mitsuhide Kanetaka, but to intimidate the Hongan-ji Temple. Nobunaga was about to launch a campaign to the east, and he planned to deal with the unyielding Hongan-ji in the next phase. At this time, the Hongan-ji was heavily besieged, and surrender or destruction was merely a matter of time.

However, in the middle of the night on that day, Nobunaga suddenly summoned Sakai Tadatsugu in secret, ordering him to lead two thousand elite soldiers from Mikawa, along with five hundred of his own musketeers, to secretly cross the Toyokawa River under the cover of night and launch a surprise attack on the Kite's Nest Mountain. Tadatsugu was overjoyed and eagerly set out.

On April 12, the Takeda army departed from the Tsutsujigasaki Castle in Kofu, and on the 21st, they entered Mikawa Province, quickly capturing the surrounding castles of Nagashino and Yoshida.

Surrounding Hongwanji

Even the "Red Armored" forces of Yamashiro Masakage, known as the "Cavalry Legion" that struck fear across the land, were not entirely composed of mounted warriors. Rather, compared to the troops of other generals, this unit was well-equipped, with a relatively larger proportion of cavalry. In fact, Japan is predominantly mountainous and hilly, with most plains covered in rice paddies, making it unsuitable for large numbers of cavalry to gallop freely. In ancient Japan, mounted warriors were not the mainstay of the army, and their numbers were generally quite small—this can be likened to the Jiangnan region of our country, where it is said, "Northerners ride horses, Southerners row boats," indicating that southern powers could not possibly form large-scale cavalry units.

The Battle of Nagashino reportedly resulted in the deaths of nearly 10,000 soldiers from the Takeda army (though this figure may not be entirely accurate), with half of those attributed to the achievements of the Tokugawa forces. The Oda and Tokugawa allied forces also suffered losses amounting to around 6,000. However, the casualties among the soldiers were not the most critical aspect; the numerous generals of the Takeda clan perished in this battle, and the vassal group that Shingen had personally assembled was on the brink of collapse, which was the fatal blow. For the Takeda clan, the damage inflicted by the Battle of Nagashino on the family was likely even greater than that caused to the Asakura clan by the Battle of Kawanakajima.

Near Nagashino, control was originally held by the "Three Families of the Mountain," namely the Suenuma clan of Nagashino and Tana, as well as the Okudaira clan of Sakate. After the Battle of Okehazama, the "Three Families of the Mountain" came under the influence of the newly risen Tokugawa clan. In the second year of Genki (1571), Takeda Shingen, who was preparing to march to Kyoto, managed to persuade these three families to switch allegiance. After Shingen's death, Tokugawa Ieyasu once again persuaded Okudaira Sadayoshi of Sakate and dispatched troops to capture Nagashino Castle. Takeda Katsuyori sought revenge for the Suenuma clan at Nagashino and launched an attack on Sakate, executing the hostage Senchiyo (the second son of Sadayoshi) sent by the Okudaira clan in public. To comfort and reward Okudaira Sadayoshi, Tokugawa Ieyasu appointed Sadayoshi's eldest son, Sadamasa, as the lord of Nagashino Castle, despite Sadamasa being only nineteen years old at the time.

It is said that modern individuals have tested old-fashioned matchlock guns, and a skilled shooter can fire three to four shots in one minute, which translates to firing one shot every 15 to 20 seconds. The effective range of the firearm is only 100 meters; beyond that distance, it becomes very difficult to hit a target, and even if a hit is achieved, it cannot penetrate the armor worn by a samurai. Meanwhile, a mounted samurai in armor can charge at a speed of up to 40 kilometers per hour, meaning they can cover 110 meters in just one second. In comparison, if the distance is well gauged and the first shot from the firearm hits the enemy, by the time the second shot is fired, the enemy cavalry would have already charged in, and the katana could be descending upon them.

It is not fair to blame Takeda Katsuyori for underestimating the power of firearms. The Takeda clan possessed the world-renowned "cavalry corps," and on open battlefields, the mobility and striking power of cavalry cannot be compared to that of infantry armed with an equal number of firearms. Moreover, the old matchlock guns of that time were extremely outdated; they not only had poor aiming accuracy, short shooting range, and high failure rates, but most importantly, their firing speed was astonishingly slow: First, one had to open the powder bag, take out a certain amount of gunpowder and place it into the barrel, then pack it down with a ramrod, followed by inserting a lead ball; second, one had to strike the flint to ignite the match; third, one had to aim at the target and pull the trigger to let the match ignite the gunpowder. With such a firing speed, it was simply a dream to compete head-on with the fast-moving cavalry. Therefore, for several decades after firearms were introduced to Japan, the traditional field battle tactics remained unchanged.

If Shōrai saw through Nobunaga's scheme, then he is a genius; even if he did not see through it, one cannot simply label him as incompetent or reckless.

In works such as "Chronicles of Nobunaga," "Contemporary Records," and "Great Achievement of Martial Virtue," it is indeed stated that Nobunaga employed "three thousand firearms" during the Battle of Nagashino. However, the most reliable historical source, "Chronicles of Nobunaga," contains a completely different account. Ota Gyuuichi explicitly wrote in his book: "Five hundred firearms were provided to the Sakai troops for the surprise attack on the nest of the kite at Yamanaka, and one thousand were used at the battle of Shitaragawa." If we also consider that Tokugawa Ieyasu may have accumulated and gathered several hundred firearms, then the number of firearms directly attacking the Takeda army during the Battle of Nagashino would not exceed one thousand five hundred, which is half of the traditional claim.

At the battle of Shizuhara, after more than three hours of fierce fighting, due to the valiant efforts of renowned generals such as Matsubara Minoru, Naito Shuri no Suke Yoshichika, and Anayama Mutsu no Kami Nobukiyo, the Takeda army had already penetrated the ranks of the Oda and Tokugawa allied forces, continuously breaching two lines of horse defenses. However, the ground was overgrown with weeds, uneven, and littered with corpses, making it difficult for them to quickly regroup and expand their gains. Sensing the situation, Nobunaga urgently dispatched three generals: Shibata Shuri no Suke Masanari, Niwa Goro Zawemon Nagahide, and Hashiba Chikuzen no Kami Hideyoshi, leading a fresh force of 1,500 men to provide reinforcements.

Battle of Nagashino

Hearing of this matter, Nobunaga was greatly enraged. His war with Hongan-ji had already lasted for many years, with both sides intermittently engaging in battles, occasionally using the court and the shogunate to feign negotiations in order to buy time. For Nobunaga, he needed to focus his main efforts on the northern and eastern fronts, striving to eliminate the Asakura, the Asai, and the Nagashima Ikki. Therefore, he only fortified Fukuzumi to blockade Hongan-ji, attempting to prevent those monks from stirring up any trouble in the western front. However, if Hongan-ji were to collude with the likes of Miyoshi Yasunaga and other lords in the Kinai region to jointly launch an attack on Kyoto, his overall strategic deployment would be thrown into disarray.

However, until this moment, Takeda Katsuyori remained obstinately unaware and launched a fourth suicidal attack. The fourth formation was led by Katsuyori's cousin, Takeda Noyama Nobutaka, and others, all clad in black armor and bearing black flags—at this moment, news arrived of the fall of the Nest of the Kite Mountain.

The battle commenced at 6:00 AM on May 21. The Takeda army, leveraging their cavalry advantage, launched a series of powerful assaults against the Shitarahara position held by the allied forces of Oda and Tokugawa. First, the left-wing vanguard, the Yamashiro Masakage unit bearing a black background with a white bellflower flag, attacked the Tokugawa forces. This was followed by the central vanguard, the Naito Masatoyo unit, which targeted the Oda forces led by Takigawa Ieyasu, and the right-wing vanguard, the Baba Nobuharu unit, which attacked the Oda forces led by Sakuma Nobumori

The Firearms of the Warring States Period

Thus, Nobunaga summoned troops from various regions in the Kinai area and personally led them from Kyoto to attack the province of Kawachi. He first captured the branch castle of Hongwanji, Kawayatsu, and then besieged Takawaki Castle. It is said that the total number of Oda's army reached 100,000, instilling fear in all who witnessed it. After an unfavorable initial battle, Miyo Kiyoshi urgently dispatched Matsui Tomoyoshi to meet Nobunaga and requested surrender. In contrast to the feudal factions that had repeatedly opposed him, Nobunaga showed much more mercy and readily accepted their request.

This is the ridiculous yet lamentable politics devoid of principles

The three thousand mounted warriors each belong to different factions and do not constitute a unified cavalry corps. Therefore, the several waves that charged at the Shizuhara position of the Oda-Tokugawa allied forces could not all be mounted warriors; rather, they were certainly led by mounted warriors, followed by infantry armed with swords and spears. The customary practice in warfare during the Warring States period was for mounted warriors to first disrupt the enemy's formation, followed by infantry engaging in close combat.

Moreover, it is important to note that the firearms and gunners under Nobunaga's command were not entirely under his control; various generals had their own firearms, and many garrisons were also equipped with some firearms. Assembling all these firearms was certainly not a task that could be accomplished overnight

The Takeda army consisted of the main forces from the provinces of Kai and Shinano, as well as the Obata troops from Nishi Ueno (present-day Gunma Prefecture), and the forces from the provinces of Suruga, Tōtōmi, and Mikawa, totaling an army strength of 15,000. In contrast, the garrison at Nagashino Castle numbered only about 500 soldiers. Okudaira Sadamasa hurriedly sent someone to request assistance from Tokugawa Ieyasu, who had already been intimidated by the Takeda forces and was too afraid to face them alone, thus seeking aid once again from Oda Nobunaga.

Well, even if it takes 10 seconds to fire a shot, with an effective shooting range of 100 meters, in the face of cavalry moving at 40 kilometers per hour, one would still end up being cut down after firing just one shot. What is even more critical is that during a test firing, within one minute, seven shots were fired in total, three of which jammed, resulting in only four shots being fired successfully. Moreover, before the seven shots could be completed, the shooter was already enveloped in smoke, making it nearly impossible to see the target ahead

It is generally believed that Oda Nobunaga revolutionarily invented the three-stage shooting method and first applied it on a large scale in actual combat during the Battle of Nagashino. In contrast, Takeda Katsuyori, disregarding the limitations of the terrain, foolishly launched a frontal assault with cavalry against the enemy's horse defenses, resulting in significant losses and nearly the downfall of his nation in a single battle. However, in reality, the issue was not that simple.

In the Battle of Nagashino, Nobunaga first established his formation at Shitaragahara, using the narrow terrain to hinder the large-scale maneuvers of the Takeda cavalry. At the same time, he aimed to convey a sense of fearlessness to the enemy, enticing Shingen to advance. He arranged his troops along the Inegawa River and constructed multiple horse defenses, also to minimize the impact of enemy cavalry charges as much as possible—using horse defenses to assist in the firing of firearms, which is said to have been invented by the Saika clan. Under these various conditions, the discussion of the large-scale use of firearms, as well as the coordinated operations of the gunmen with the spear units and sword-wielding warriors, can take place.

The True Changxiao

The second formation of the Takeda army was led by Shingen's uncle, Shōyōken Nobuyoshi, along with other generals such as Koyamada Nobushige, but they similarly returned defeated in the face of continuous gunfire. Following this was the third formation, primarily consisting of the Obata troops from Ueno Province, known as the "Red Warriors." Their commander, Obata Jōsuke Nobushige, led the charge but met his end after being struck by a bullet. Seizing the opportunity, the Tokugawa forces, including Ishikawa Kazumasa, Naitō Ienaga, Naitō Nobunari, Sakakibara Yasumasa, Naitō Masanari, and Honda Tadakatsu, surged out with two thousand infantry from the horse barricades to pursue the remaining enemies. Ieyasu commanded, "There is no need to expend effort in taking the enemy general's head; the important thing is to leave not a single one alive!"

Oda Nobunaga replaced the effectiveness of the spear units with firearms and horse barricades, and the firearms possessed considerable lethal and deterrent power at close range, facilitating a timely transition from defense to offense. To prevent the Takeda cavalry from flanking the gun units, he chose the relatively narrow and unfavorable Shitaragahara as the main battlefield, while also deploying spear units at the junctions and flanks of the horse barricades.

Thus, the morale of the troops in Nagashino Castle surged even higher due to the imminent arrival of reinforcements, and their resistance became even more valiant. With no other options, Takeda Katsuyori had no choice but to abandon the siege and redirect his main forces to the west to confront the Oda and Tokugawa allied forces, who were preparing their formation at Shitarakuhara. An intense battle was about to erupt

In June of last year, Takeda Katsuyori led his troops to besiege Takeda's vassal, the Ogasawara clan, who were defending Takatenjin Castle in the province of Tōtōmi. At this time, Nobunaga had already defeated his long-standing rivals, the Asakura and Asai clans, and was no longer in a tight spot, thus unable to dispatch reinforcements. He urgently ordered his eldest son, Nobutada, who was stationed at Gifu Castle, to rush to the aid. Nobutada, upon receiving his father's command, did not dare to delay and hurriedly set out, reaching Yoshida Castle in Mikawa Province by the third day. However, at that moment, news arrived that the stronghold of Takatenjin had fallen; it turned out that the castle commander Ogasawara had colluded with the Takeda forces and opened the gates. Oda Nobutada was forced to return empty-handed to Gifu Castle.

The traditional view of the Battle of Nagashino is as follows

Finally, it should be added that cavalry would not arrange themselves in a dense square formation to charge, thereby becoming natural targets for firearms. Cavalry charges have always advanced in scattered small groups, typically in pairs or threes. If the formation is too dense, it is likely to result in collisions or even chaos due to the varying speeds of the horses. In the era of matchlock guns, where shooting accuracy was very low, it would be utterly fanciful to expect that a concentrated volley of gunfire could inflict serious damage on charging cavalry.

According to the "Military Service Register" of the Uesugi clan, a prominent daimyō of the Echigo region during the Warring States period, it is estimated that the number of mounted samurai at the height of the Uesugi clan's power was around 3,000. Therefore, the Takeda clan, which was comparable in strength and also renowned for its mounted samurai, should not have had more than 5,000.

In the third year of Tenshō (1575), Takeda Katsuyori once again personally led a large army, departing from Iwamura in Mino, and marched south to attack the stronghold of Nagashino in Mikawa Province (present-day Nagashino, Hōrai Town, Aichi Prefecture) — thus marking the beginning of the famous Battle of Nagashino

However, when Takeda was bound to the wooden frame, standing on the opposite bank of the Takigawa River, and was urged and scolded by the watching Takeda troops, he shouted at the top of his lungs: "I have seen our lord and Lord Oda in Okazaki. Lord Oda has brought tens of thousands of troops, and will soon annihilate the enemy and rescue everyone. Just hold on a little longer, you must hold on a little longer!" Immediately, he was pierced to death by a flurry of spears

In April of the third year of Tenshō (1575), Nobunaga had not yet left Kyoto to return to Gifu when he heard that Miyoshi Yasunaga (Shōgan) at Takayagijō in the Kawachi Province was behaving unusually. Miyoshi Yasunaga was a senior elder of the Miyoshi family, being the uncle of Miyoshi Nagayoshi, who once held power in the Kinai region, and was also a renowned cultural figure. Yasunaga had originally followed his head of the family, Miyoshi Yoshitake, in submitting to Nobunaga, but later Yoshitake repeatedly raised the banner of rebellion until the castle fell and he met his demise. Consequently, Yasunaga felt uneasy and secretly colluded with Hongan-ji, attempting to play both sides.

The formidable adversary that Nobunaga first had to contend with was Takeda Katsuyori from the east. It is said that on his deathbed, Takeda Shingen advised Katsuyori to keep his death a secret and not to launch any external attacks for three years, in order to avoid exhausting military resources and being taken advantage of by others. However, the impetuous Katsuyori disregarded his father's dying words. After assuming power, he not only frequently raised troops but also launched attacks from Iwamurakuchi and invaded the province of Enshū, engaging in battles with both Oda and Tokugawa, reveling in the chaos.

Therefore, as long as the allied forces of Oda and Tokugawa can utilize the advantages of the terrain to hinder the charge of the small number of cavalry warriors from the Takeda clan, relying on their numerical superiority, they may seize the initiative in the battle. Prior to the Battle of Nagashino, the long spear formation was generally used to obstruct the charge of cavalry warriors; however, the long spear formation only possesses defensive capabilities and lacks offensive power. Moreover, if the long spear formation is not arranged closely, it is difficult to block the horses, and if arranged closely, it becomes challenging for the attacking troops behind to penetrate to the front lines and timely shift from defense to offense. Of course, under normal circumstances, cavalry warriors tend to avoid a direct assault on the long spear formation and would choose to infiltrate from the flanks.

On the thirteenth day, on this very day, Oda Nobunaga and his son Nobutada personally led an army of thirty thousand to depart from Gifu Castle. That evening, they conducted a victory prayer at the Hachiman Shrine. Upon seeing the dilapidated state of the Hachiman Shrine, Nobunaga leisurely ordered Okabe Yauemon to oversee its restoration, instructing that it be repaired as soon as possible—his calm demeanor greatly boosted the soldiers' confidence

This is because the old matchlock guns of that time, in addition to the aforementioned shortcomings, had a fatal weakness: their lifespan was too short, and the rate of obsolescence was extremely high. Even if they did not become obsolete, after firing several dozen shots, the barrels would become too hot to hold. In the afternoon, when Masakatsu and others were able to break through multiple horse defenses and began close combat with the Oda and Tokugawa allied forces, it may have been because after several hours of continuous firing, the Oda army's gunners were essentially unable to continue functioning. After facing a barrage of gunfire that caused rows of casualties, with the dead and wounded strewn across the battlefield for an entire morning, the Takeda army still fought tenaciously and was able to rout several enemy units, achieving a record of killing hundreds or even thousands. This demonstrates that the force established by Takeda Shingen was indeed invincible, and perhaps with just a little more effort, the Oda and Tokugawa allied forces would collapse entirely.

For this reason, artillery was not used as a main force in warfare for a considerable period. Among the warlords of the Warring States period, it was Takeda Shingen, the lord of Kai, who first employed firearms on a large scale in actual combat. He organized an unprecedentedly large artillery unit, which demonstrated remarkable effectiveness in siege warfare. During an assault, the simultaneous firing of hundreds of guns could intimidate the enemy and weaken the morale of the defenders; while defending, shooting from a fortified position could significantly compensate for deficiencies in range and accuracy. Shingen's archrival, Uesugi Kenshin, also placed great importance on the use of firearms, establishing his own gun workshop at Kasugayama Castle. However, before Oda Nobunaga, no one had dared to employ firearms on such a large scale in field battles, nor had anyone confronted cavalry directly with them.

Does he truly care for Ieyasu, or is he funding gold to have Ieyasu shield him from the eastern front, even deliberately showcasing his wealth, leaving an implicit message of "Work well with me, and do not harbor any second thoughts; you cannot afford to play games"? That remains unknown to anyone.

Sheng Lai personally believes that the combat strength of the Takeda army is renowned throughout the world. The Oda army dared not advance swiftly to relieve the siege of Nagashino, nor did they dare to choose an open field for a decisive battle. Instead, they deployed their forces at the easily defensible Shitaragahara, which clearly indicated their fear. This demonstrates a strategy of courage against timidity, making defeat inevitable. Therefore, he rejected the suggestions of Baba Nobuharu and others, leaving a portion of troops at locations such as Tsubakiyama to the west of Nagashino to continue monitoring and besieging Nagashino Castle, while he personally led the main force westward, marching vigorously towards Shitaragahara.

The Collapse of the Takeda Army

Tokugawa Ieyasu dispatched his eldest son Nobuyasu to command 7,000 troops to set up a formation at Hōzōji, defending the main road leading to Okazaki. This was to guard against Yoshiyasu, who was learning from his father and once again attempting to bypass the stronghold, advancing directly west with his main force. Meanwhile, Ieyasu himself led 5,000 troops into Yoshida Castle

Future generations should not judge heroes solely by their successes or failures. One cannot assume that all of Takeda Shingen's strategies are correct and flawless simply because he was a genius military strategist. Likewise, one should not conclude that all of Uesugi Kenshin's actions were inappropriate just because he ultimately faced defeat.

Returning to the Battle of Nagashino, Takeda Katsuyori, in order to maintain his prestige, tragically had no choice but to engage in a decisive battle against the Oda and Tokugawa clans within Mikawa. However, what he did not anticipate was that the small Nagashino Castle would hold out for over a month without being captured. This not only caused a decline in the morale of the Takeda army but also resulted in Katsuyori losing the initiative on the battlefield. He was forced to comply with the battle rules set by Nobunaga and proceed to the battlefield designated by Nobunaga to fight a difficult battle

However, Takeda Katsuyori's strategic approach was entirely different from that of his father. His objective was to encircle the enemy and strike at their reinforcements, drawing the main force of the Tokugawa army to engage in a decisive battle with him. Upon learning that Ieyasu had entered Yoshida Castle, he left a portion of his troops to continue besieging Nagashino while he himself led the main force to advance and surround Yoshida Castle

On May 10, Takeda Katsuyori decided to temporarily abandon the siege of Yoshida Castle, withdrawing his entire army to launch a fierce attack on Nagashino Castle. Perhaps it was due to the fact that a mere fortress with only 500 defenders had managed to hold out for nearly a month, making it difficult to capture, which left him feeling humiliated. On the morning of the 12th, intense fighting began. Takeda's infantry, armed with shields made of bamboo, advanced step by step under a rain of arrows and cannonballs from the castle. Facing the surging enemy, Okudaira Sadamasa utilized the strong fortifications and advantageous terrain to resist tenaciously, only showing signs of defeat in the afternoon of the 13th when the outer layer of the castle was breached by the enemy.

The vanguard of the Takeda army suffered heavy casualties before the Oda army's three-stage volley, forcing Katsuyori to recall them and continue the charge with the second formation. At the same time, he ordered the remnants of the San'yama unit to maneuver from downstream of the Renko River to the flank of the Tokugawa army, attacking the vanguard led by Okubo Shichirō Uemon Tadayoshi and his brother Jirō Uemon Tadasuke, who were positioned outside the horse defense barricade. Behind the Okubo brothers were three hundred Tokugawa riflemen, and in order to protect the safety of the gunners, they fought bravely, engaging in a back-and-forth struggle with the enemy as many as nine times.

On the night of the 14th, Kyo Uemon crawled out of the drainage ditch of Nagashio Castle and then drifted downstream for four kilometers along the Takigawa, which had swollen due to the plum rain season. He finally lit a signal fire on Yanfeng Mountain to inform those in Nagashio Castle that he had safely escaped. On the 15th, an emergency military meeting was held in Okazaki Castle, where Oda Nobunaga decided to abandon the vast plains of Hoihara, suitable for a large-scale battle, and chose the narrow and elongated Setogahara as the direction of advance. At this time, Torii Kyo Uemon also arrived at the battlefield.

Originally, Oda Nobunaga had strategically positioned three thousand matchlocks behind the horse barricades, organizing the gunners into three tiers: one for loading powder, one for aiming, and one for firing. This arrangement significantly enhanced the power of the old matchlock guns, which typically had a long loading time and allowed the enemy ample opportunity to charge between two rounds of fire—this is known as the famous "three-stage firing".

Indeed, after the Battle of Mikatagahara, the strength of the Tokugawa clan was severely diminished, and there was a widespread psychological shadow among the soldiers due to their fear of the Takeda cavalry. Consequently, their character gradually shifted from being "boar-like" (referring to being as fierce as a wild boar) to the more composed demeanor of Ieyasu, who was reluctant to engage in battles without certainty of victory. For this reason, he delayed sending troops to rescue Nagashino Castle, only departing from his base in Okazaki on May 6 after receiving assurance that Nobunaga would come to their aid.

To the north of Leyuan lies Mount Tai, and to the south flows the Feng River, with a flat area of two kilometers in width in between. The Oda army is stationed in this region, utilizing the shallow Renzi River to set up their formations on the western bank. It is said that when Nobunaga left Gifu Castle, he ordered each soldier to prepare a piece of wood with a diameter of ten centimeters. At this time, these pieces of wood were used to construct several horse defense barricades along the bank of the Renzi River, and shallow trenches were dug in front of the barricades to guard against the fierce frontal charges of the Takeda cavalry.

The next day, Nobunaga entered the Tokugawa clan's main castle in Okazaki and made contact with Ieyasu. Meanwhile, at Nagashino, the Takeda army invaded the Sannomaru and attempted to send Kanekuri troops, who were skilled miners used by the daimyo for gold and silver mining and often employed as engineers during wartime, to dig tunnels into the honmaru. However, this plan was uncovered by Okudaira Sadamasa. At this time, only four days' worth of provisions remained in Nagashino Castle, so Sadamasa sent someone to break through the siege once again to seek help from Tokugawa Ieyasu. The low-ranking samurai Torii Kiyomasa volunteered for this important mission.

From this perspective, the victory at the Battle of Nagashino can largely be attributed to the innovative tactical applications of Oda Nobunaga. However, this is not closely related to the three-stage shooting technique. The principle of three-stage shooting is not complex (as it was already utilized in China during the Han Dynasty with crossbows) and was not originally created by Nobunaga. Many powerful clans in the Kinai region, such as the Suzuki clan of Saka, had previously employed three-stage shooting to resist the invasion of Nobunaga's forces. It is likely that Nobunaga easily learned this technique during his battles against them.

In the year preceding the bloodbath at Nagashino (1573), Oda Nobunaga issued documents bearing his red seal to various regions, instructing them to improve the roads. This initiative aimed to address transportation issues, facilitating the rapid movement of troops across vast territories, while also creating an illusion of peace and promoting commercial circulation. These main thoroughfares were completed three years later, in the second year following the Battle of Nagashino (1575). In late February of that year, Nobunaga entered the capital along the well-maintained roads and met with Imagawa Yoshimoto, who had fled to this area after being attacked by the Takeda clan in Suruga Province.

At this moment, the surprise attack plan on Yanzhong Mountain proposed by Sakai Tadatsugu was gladly adopted by Nobunaga, yielding the desired effect. Upon learning that their retreat was cut off and that they could be attacked from both front and rear at any moment, the morale of the Takeda army began to significantly decline, and the physical and mental fatigue from the fierce fighting throughout the morning started to manifest. Nobunaga seized the opportunity and commanded the troops to launch a final counterattack—indeed, it was only at this moment that the outcome of the battle became clear. As for the death of Yamashiro Masakage, we have previously mentioned that the accuracy of gunfire is quite low; it is not the case that a certain general shouted, "Who is that?" and all the guns aimed together to bring down the enemy general. The death of Masakage was merely a chance event, not the achievement of Honda Tadakatsu.

However, did Nobunaga truly gather and utilize 3,000 matchlocks at the Battle of Nagashino? At that time, the cost of matchlocks was exceedingly high, and ordinary daimyōs would spend several years, even over a decade, accumulating a hundred matchlocks, which was already sufficient to stand out among their peers. Aside from the mercenary groups such as the Kira and Suzuki clans from the Kii Province, who specialized in matchlock technology and relied on it for their livelihood, it is unlikely that anyone could assemble nearly a thousand matchlocks. Although Oda Nobunaga had substantial financial resources and placed great importance on the collection and use of matchlocks, and even controlled significant matchlock production areas like Kuniyoshi, it would still not be an easy task to produce 3,000 matchlocks all at once.

Oda Nobunaga arrived with an army of 30,000 to rescue Mikawa Province. Among the notable generals of the Takeda army, such as Yamanaka Masakage, Baba Nobuharu, and Naito Masatoyo, there was a consensus that the troops had been engaged in battle for a long time and were fatigued, making retreat the most prudent course of action. However, Takeda Katsuyori's trusted advisors, Nagasaka Ryōzai and Akebono Ōsuke, advocated for a decisive battle with the enemy.

Moreover, at the Shele Yuan position, the straight-line distance from Maruyama in the north to Lianzi Bridge in the south is merely two kilometers. If 3,000 guns are arranged in three segments, it would mean that there is one gunner for every two meters. How then can the long-handled troops and sword-wielding warriors positioned at the front and back of the formation maneuver swiftly in the midst of the billowing smoke of battle

In summary, under the command of Nobunaga, the allied forces of Oda and Tokugawa launched a full-scale counterattack, leading to the complete collapse of the Takeda army, which fled in the direction of Hōraiji Temple. The allied forces pursued from behind, and Naitō Masayasu, one of the "Four Ministers," was killed in battle along the way. At 3 PM, Baba Nobuharu personally led thirty cavalry to the rear, and after witnessing Takeda Katsuyori's safe departure at the Saru Bridge, he turned and heroically charged into the enemy ranks, taking down four or five of the Oda generals before sacrificing himself.

This method is known as "early combination." It involves pre-rolling a thin paper into a cylindrical shape, placing lead pellets at one end, filling the other end with gunpowder, and then compacting it. The end containing the gunpowder is then twisted and sealed. When in use, one simply tears the paper to expose the gunpowder, which can then be loaded into the cannon, thus saving the time required to separately load the gunpowder and lead pellets and compact them with an iron rod. It is said that using the "early combination" method, a skilled shooter can fire six to seven rounds per minute, which translates to firing a shot every little over 10 seconds

After reporting the urgent situation in Nagashino Castle, Kyo Uemon refused to stay, hastily drinking only a few sips of water before rushing back. Unfortunately, while attempting to sneak back into the castle, he was finally captured by the Takeda army. At this moment, Shingen was extremely furious and agitated with this small Nagashino Castle. He threatened Kyo Uemon, saying, "Inform the castle that no rescue will come, and I will spare your life." Exhausted and famished after running all night, and covered in wounds, Kyo Uemon reluctantly agreed.

Although he was of little help, Tokugawa Ieyasu was immensely grateful and, according to custom, was obliged to pay a token of thanks for the assistance. Nobunaga, however, showed considerable care for this younger brother; not only did he not ask Ieyasu for a single coin or a grain of rice, but he also apologized, saying, "I am too busy to come personally to provide support, so let me express my apologies with gold instead." He sent two bags of gold to Ieyasu, which were said to be so heavy that even two strong men could not carry either bag.