Commercial Agriculture in Rural Counties during the Republic of China - Excerpt from "Investigation of Xunwu"

(21) Repairing watches

Printing ink for base paper

(12) Umbrella

Prostitute 1626

At Chengjiang Market, the oil brought from Menling amounts to approximately four boats (carried on shoulders from Menling to be unloaded at Chengjiang), with each boat carrying twelve loads of oil. Each load is valued at around thirty yuan in small silver. Calculating based on one hundred markets annually, the total value is approximately one hundred fifty thousand yuan

Raisin cotton thread lead

A small eatery does not require much capital; just a few old quilts, a couple of coarse mats, some rice, and a bit of firewood will suffice to start. The rent for the shop can be paid a few months later.

(3) The business from Meixian to Menling

Snowflake cream flashlight electric soil (electric oil [10])

Textbooks (not sold in separate bookstores, sold attached to grocery stores)

In this city, there are many women of the three standards. The people of Xunwu have a saying, "The goods of the three standards are as sweet as the glutinous rice of Xiangshan," which refers to the beauty of the women of the three standards

The second major gate of kelp

cow

(15) Tofu

October 300 heads

The rise and fall of gray market stores cannot be overlooked in its summary

The first is rice. The Meixian area is severely lacking in rice, with prices being twice as high as in Xunwu, which supplies a significant amount annually. Rice from the four regions of Chengjiang, Sanbiao, Jitan (Xiangshan), and the urban area is transported to Meixian via Niudouguang through Bachu and Datuo; rice from the upper half of Longtu, Yutian, Liucheng, Fangtian, and Huangxiang is sent to Meixian via Zhongkeng; a portion from Datong, the lower half of Huangxiang, Datian, Lantian, Douyan, and Longchuan is transported to Meixian via Cenfeng through Shizheng. The output from the three routes is approximately equal, totaling one hundred dan of rice per day, amounting to thirty-six thousand dan annually, with an average price of eight yuan per dan, totaling two hundred eighty-eight thousand yuan.

Most of the goods in this city are sold to the four corners of the urban area and the San Shui District, specifically the San Biao and Shui Yuan areas. Very few goods are purchased from other places. The only exception is salt. The majority of salt is sold to An Yuan and Xin Feng, with only a small portion sold in the urban area and San Biao. Because it is a daily necessity, it constitutes the largest segment of business in the city. There are five salt shops in the city, each generating over 20,000 yuan in annual sales at most, and at least 6,000 to 7,000 yuan at minimum. Collectively, these five shops can achieve an annual business volume of 100,000 yuan. Because it is a daily necessity, it constitutes the largest segment of business in the city. There are five salt shops in the city, each generating over 20,000 yuan in annual sales at most, and at least 6,000 to 7,000 yuan at minimum. Collectively, these five shops can achieve an annual business volume of 100,000 yuan

(14) Fire shop

Once there was a business owned by Hu Donglin, a native of Ganzhou, who started with an investment of four to five hundred yuan. He operated for over twenty years, manufacturing and selling various wooden items such as tables, stools, chairs, desks, beds, foot basins, clothes racks, water buckets, cabinets, washbasins, urinals, trays, signs, plaques (for offerings, birthday celebrations, and commendations), couplets, book boxes, clothing boxes, wardrobes, blackboards for schools, and other tools, as well as gift boxes and supports for carrying gifts, among others.

September is the same as August

(22) Business at the levee market

It is also necessary to mention a few more grocery stores in order to gain a more specific understanding of their situations

Peng Wanhe and Li Xiangren both manufacture paper umbrellas. Peng Wanhe is from Wuping and has operated an umbrella shop in Xunwu for over a hundred years, spanning three generations. When he first arrived in Xunwu, he had only a couple of hundred yuan as capital. Gradually, he earned money from making umbrellas, and by the year before last (1928), prior to the 325 uprising, his total assets, including land, amounted to over one thousand to two thousand taels of silver. Since the Republic of China, there has been a notable trend: foreign umbrellas now account for 70% of the market, while paper umbrellas only make up 30%. Regardless of urban or rural areas, and irrespective of workers, farmers, merchants, or students, almost all young men and women are now using foreign umbrellas. Foreign umbrellas come from Meixian and Xingning, which has led to a shift; previously, residents from the southern half of the county, such as Liucheng and Niuduguang, would come to Pengdian in the county seat to buy paper umbrellas, but now they all go to Meixian and Xingning to purchase foreign umbrellas. In the past, Peng Wanhe produced three thousand paper umbrellas annually, but now he only makes about one thousand two to three hundred each year. Previously, during the Guangxu era, Pengdian employed six to seven workers, but now only two are hired. The price of umbrellas has increased from 25 cents each to 45 cents.

Civilized hat, wool felt blanket

There are no markets in April, May, June, and July

A total of 3,320 heads throughout the year

(18) Firecrackers

His relative, Xue, invited ten people last year to participate in a "monthly lottery" meeting, with each person contributing five yuan, totaling a capital of fifty yuan. They opened a small wooden goods store beside the City God Temple, without hiring any workers, relying solely on the efforts of a father and son. However, after a year, they incurred losses and the business was barely surviving.

The comparison between manual work and machines is as follows: the time taken to produce one item manually is approximately the same as the time taken for a machine to produce three items. In terms of labor costs: the manual production of a set of short-sleeved shirts and pants costs 0.7 yuan, while machine production costs 0.6 yuan. Regarding quality: items produced by machines are superior to those made by hand. How can machines not replace manual labor?

Vagrant 2701

Shunchang Xingji is a branch of the old Shunchang store, considered one of the best in the gray market business. With a capital of around 1,000 yuan, it pays 200 to 300 yuan annually to Meixian. The owner, Fan Zuxian, is a local resident, and with over twenty family members to feed, the profits from the business are barely sufficient to cover their expenses

Around the 27th or 28th year of the Guangxu era, Mr. Xiong, the owner of a silk shop named Hengfu in Ganzhou (a native of Nanchang), came to Xinyu to establish the Tongshan Society. He is known as Mr. Tian'en. At that time, the benefactor Gu Hefu was a scholar living in the city, and his family situation was not very good. Later, the benefactor changed his name to Pan Mingdian, who was a recommended scholar with a family fortune of around one thousand yuan, and is currently serving as the clerk of the Jiujiang District Court.

(3) Groceries

There are only three butcher stalls set up by the roadside, with no slaughterhouse. The three butchers are Liu Yan'er, Chen Lao'er, and Liu Shiwei. Liu Yan'er used to have over a hundred yuan in capital, but now it is all gone. Chen Lao'er and Liu Shiwei also have no capital at all, as buying pigs does not require cash; after slaughtering the pigs, they collect the money and then pay for the pigs, as long as there is credit. On average, they slaughter two pigs a day, with each pig weighing one hundred jin, totaling seventy-two thousand jin of pork per year. Currently, the cost of buying pigs is two jiao five fen per jin, while selling the meat is two jiao eight fen per jin, yielding a profit of three fen per jin. Annually, this can result in a profit of two thousand one hundred sixty yuan, which is a decent business. However, they have to pay a significant amount in slaughter taxes. Previously, the three stalls paid a tax of one hundred yuan per month, totaling one thousand two hundred yuan per year. Recently, due to a decline in business, they only paid one thousand yuan, which means each stall had to pay over three hundred yuan. Since the three stalls are responsible for paying the slaughter tax, no one else can slaughter pigs for sale, unless it is for personal consumption. After the Red Army entered the city, the number of stalls increased from three to seven or eight, greatly expanding the market. There are no taxes to pay, and every pig sold is a profit, making all the butchers very happy. The price of meat was three jiao two fen per jin before the arrival of the Red Army, and is now two jiao eight fen per jin.

Kapok pillow with Zhongshan button

What has been mentioned above pertains to imported goods or goods transported through trade; here, we will discuss the exports from Xunwu County.

The clock calls to people

A ball made of (blanket) yarn, a cap for children, a nightcap

There are two shops in the city that manufacture yellow tobacco. One is called Huang Yufeng, run by a person from Shanghang, which has been operating in Xunwu for two generations. Initially, it had a capital of 3,000 yuan and also sold paper and miscellaneous goods, earning over 10,000 yuan. The owner returned to Shanghang to purchase farmland, and now there is still over 1,000 yuan in capital at the shop in the city. The other shop is called Yongquanhao, also producing yellow tobacco, run by a person from Anyuan, with a capital of 500 to 1,000 yuan, and it just opened two years ago.

The grocery business within the city, during the Qing Dynasty, totaled approximately 150,000 yuan annually, whereas it is now around 120,000 yuan. The distribution of the 120,000 yuan is as follows: over 80,000 yuan for fabrics (70,000 yuan for local cloth, 10,000 yuan for foreign cloth, 2,000 yuan for woolen fabric, and over 1,000 yuan for summer cloth), 20,000 yuan for foreign goods (with each shop having an excess of 1,100 to 1,200 yuan, and a shortfall of 200 to 300 yuan), in addition to approximately 10,000 yuan for yellow tobacco, around 400 yuan for pastries (with only two shops selling pastries), and about 500 yuan for incense paper and firecrackers (with two shops selling incense paper and thirteen shops selling firecrackers)

November 3, 2100 heads

(5) beans

Chalk natural ink brush

Farmer 1, 62060

The fourth main gate of bean flour

Li Xiangren is a native of Nankang, in his forties, originally a umbrella craftsman, who became a boss in the early years of the Republic of China. With a capital of around 40 to 50 yuan, he produces approximately 2,000 umbrellas each year, employing two workers: one for trimming the ribs and another for covering the paper, while he himself applies the oil.

The third company, Suan Yitai Xing, has three partners, with an investment of over 1,000 yuan each, earning an annual profit of around 100 to 200 yuan

Light rail spoons, bright tiles, and various porcelain items

The tofu business is essentially a "home-based business," where one simultaneously makes tofu and cultivates the land

Pig

The woodworking shop can be considered a large one; its products are not only sold in the urban area but also distributed to various districts and counties. However, the items in his shop are primarily not supplied to the working class and the poor, but rather to the landlord class, middle merchants, and wealthy farmers, as the working class and the poor do not require his goods, unless it is for the purpose of marrying off a daughter, in which case they might purchase small clothing boxes or cabinets. His family is quite poor, residing in Ganzhou. Twenty years ago, he came from Ganzhou to Xunwu to work as a carpenter, saved some money, and opened a small woodworking shop. Gradually, it developed, and at its peak, he employed four or five workers, earning about a thousand yuan, half of which he sent back to Ganzhou, leaving him with four or five hundred yuan to conduct business. Since 1928, business has not been good; he has only retained one worker, while he himself works and his son helps a little, barely making ends meet. The decline in his business is entirely due to the land revolution. The northern half of the county did not experience the revolution, yet it was still affected by it. Since 1928, business has not been good; he has only retained one worker, while he himself works and his son helps a little, barely making ends meet. The decline in his business is entirely due to the land revolution. The northern half of the county did not experience the revolution, yet it was still affected by it. The landlord class and other wealthy individuals no longer celebrate birthdays or engage in festive events, offerings to deities and praises for merits have ceased, and most schools have closed down; how could his business not decline?

Opening a fire shop to make money relies on serving those who carry umbrellas and wear long gowns. When they arrive, provide them with good food and comfortable beds, and when they leave, charge them a hefty fee. For the porters and other poor individuals, the fire money (i.e., resting money) and meal costs should be lower. Meals are charged by the bowl, which is much cheaper than the per meal charge for the long-gown guests, at half a dime per bowl (a bowl is sufficient for those who can eat well, while half a bowl suffices for those who cannot). A pot of water wine costs the same as a bowl of rice. The fire money is three copper coins (i.e., copper coins) per night, as it is necessary to light a lamp and boil water for washing, hence the fire money. Meals are charged by the bowl, which is much cheaper than the per meal charge for the long-gown guests, at half a dime per bowl (a bowl is sufficient for those who can eat well, while half a bowl suffices for those who cannot). A pot of water wine costs the same as a bowl of rice. The fire money is three copper coins (i.e., copper coins) per night, as it is necessary to light a lamp and boil water for washing, hence the fire money. In cold weather, an additional charge for bedding is applied, at two copper coins per person. The profit from selling food and wine in the fire shop is four dimes for every ten dimes in costs. To be honest, the real profit from running a fire shop still comes from raising pigs, as the shop's bran, rice soup, and leftover food are always available.

The largest grocery store, owned by Chen Zhicheng, a native of Xingning, has one store each in the county town, Jitan, and Chengjiang. The store in the county town has a capital of 3,000 yuan, of which he only has about 1,000 yuan himself, with the remainder borrowed. The annual interest on the 3,000 yuan amounts to 900 yuan, and aside from wages, food, and other expenses, he aims to earn just enough to cover the interest each year. Chen himself engages in both prostitution and gambling.

Huang Yufeng hired two workers, one for tobacco processing and the other for packaging. Yongquanhao hired one worker. The annual salary for the workers is sixty yuan. Eating the boss's food, this aspect is quite similar to the "gentlemen" at the grocery and medicinal herb store. The difference lies in the fact that the workers usually have no meat or alcohol, only feasting on the first and fifteenth days of the month, while the gentlemen have regular meals and thus do not have special feasting days. The dining arrangements also differ; the gentlemen often share a table with the boss, while the workers share a table with the boss when there are few of them. If there are more workers, the boss will sit at a table with the gentlemen, and the workers will have a separate table. This indicates that the status of the gentlemen is higher than that of the workers. Workers generally do not refer to each other as workers, but rather as "masters".

The fourth is wood. The production areas include the western section of the urban area (Shangping and Xiaping), the southern section (Ezi Lake), the Hejiaowei area in the southern eighth district, the Xiangshan and Gaotou areas in the Huangxiang district, the Xiaomukeng and Zhaitangkeng areas in Sanshui district, and the Luofuzhang in the Jian district. Except for the output to Chaoshan from Luofuzhang, the rest is directed towards the Dongjiang River. However, the price of wood exported from Luofuzhang to Chaoshan is very high, while that exported to Dongjiang is quite low, amounting to approximately over 10,000 yuan annually. Twenty years ago, the production was larger. However, the price of wood exported from Luofuzhang to Chaoshan is very high, while that exported to Dongjiang is quite low, amounting to approximately over 10,000 yuan annually. Twenty years ago, the production was larger

Various canned products (beef, mixed vegetables, duck, winter bamboo shoots, pickled vegetables, sand pear, lychee, longan, pineapple, milk)

Tang Yaojie, a native of Jiaoling, has a capital of 2,000 yuan. He has not hired any staff and, apart from his expenses, has no profit. A few years ago, he operated an oil and salt business that was quite profitable, but since the year before last, he has been operating at a loss and has switched to dealing in smuggled goods

A total of 2,684,100

The women of Xunwu, like those in other areas where feudal economies have not been completely dismantled, adorn themselves with decorative items on their heads and hands, regardless of their occupation or wealth. Except for the wives of large landowners who possess gold jewelry, all others wear silver. Every woman has silver hairpins and silver earrings, which are essential for even the poorest women. Bracelets and rings are also owned by women who have at least enough to eat. Silver is a term used, but in reality, it is often just iron sheets coated with a bit of silver, and some are copper with a silver coating. There are more than seven shops in the city that make such jewelry, each requiring only a few dozen yuan as capital. Their jewelry consists of custom orders from customers and some are packed in small boxes for sale in surrounding areas. Among the seven jewelry shops, four are operated by one boss, one worker, and one apprentice; one shop has four people working; another has two; and one operates with just one person. The apprenticeship system is similar to that in the hairdressing industry, but the work is more arduous and the clothing worn is of poorer quality.

The majority of pigs come from Xinfeng, followed by Anyuan. There are two routes taken: one route goes from Anyuan City, through Xunwu City, passing by Niudouguang and Bachi to Meixian, which is the more frequented route; the other route departs from the southern township of Anyuan, passing through Gongping, Xinwei, Liucheng, and the Zhongkeng market in Pingyuan towards Meixian, which is less traveled. Throughout the year, a total of 5,000 pigs are transported via these two routes. On average, each pig weighs 100 jin, with a price of 4.5 jiao per jin (45 yuan per pig), resulting in a total value of 225,000 yuan for the 5,000 pigs. The Xunwu government levies a tax of 2 jiao per pig.

(11) Tailor

(23) Prostitute

In December, there are only 2 posts, with a total of 160 heads

(9) Medicinal materials

Zhang Junyi engages in both the trade of counterfeit goods and miscellaneous items, starting with a capital of 200 yuan, with the remainder being borrowed. He does not hire a manager but directs his son in business, yielding a considerable profit each year. He is a local resident; five or six years ago, he was a porter, helping merchants from Xunwu City transport rice or mushrooms to Meixian, and returning with cloth and salted fish. He carried goods himself while also serving as the head porter. This role as head porter is profitable. Merchants from Xunwu provided him with money to procure goods, and both the bosses in Xunwu City and Meixian offered him tips, allowing him to gradually accumulate wealth. He is a local resident; five or six years ago, he was a porter, helping merchants from Xunwu City transport rice or mushrooms to Meixian, and returning with cloth and salted fish. He carried goods himself while also serving as the head porter. This role as head porter is profitable. Merchants from Xunwu provided him with money to procure goods, and both the bosses in Xunwu City and Meixian offered him tips, allowing him to gradually accumulate wealth

Government agency 1004

From Menling to Meixian, the porters carry a load there and return with a load.

There are still three handmade tailoring shops remaining in the city

Yin-Yang buckle wide and narrow strap suspenders

Baihetang is the first establishment, owned by a certain Chi, a native of Chaozhou. He was originally from Huangxiang and his surname was Liu. Due to poverty in his childhood, his parents sold him to a medicine merchant with the surname Chi in Chaozhou. Later, he opened a medicinal herb shop in Xunwu, starting with a capital of around 1,000 yuan, and became a boss. There is a saying among Guangdong merchants: "Not afraid of pulling, only afraid of extinction." Those without sons must buy a son to carry on the family line, precisely because they are "afraid of extinction." There are also reasons related to the need for labor that lead to the purchase of sons. Generally, if one buys a clever and capable boy, he is treated as a son; if he is dull and foolish, he is made into a "slave." The owner of Baihetang himself was bought; since he was unable to have children, he bought another son, and subsequently, he had two sons and two daughters of his own, making a total of seven people in his household, including his wife. He also took on three apprentices. He earned some money. The medicinal herb business is quite profitable; herbs are weighed in and out using scales. The owner of Baihetang himself was bought; since he was unable to have children, he bought another son, and subsequently, he had two sons and two daughters of his own, making a total of seven people in his household, including his wife. He also took on three apprentices. He earned some money. The medicinal herb business is quite profitable; herbs are weighed in and out using scales. There are two categories of herbs: coarse herbs (water herbs) are for treating illnesses and are consumed by the general public; tender materials are supplements, affordable only to the wealthy. Tender materials have set prices, while coarse herbs are priced according to the merchants' quotes. Among the seven pharmacies, only Baihetang, Yang Qingren, and Wang Putai offer tender materials.

The "Lower Nine Streams" is in contrast to the "Upper Nine Streams." The Lower Nine Streams are: 1. Toe cutting, 2. Back patting, 3. Drumming, 4. Smoking, 5. Tea picking (a duet of male and female tea-picking opera), 6. Acting in plays, 7. Sending messages, 8. Haircutting, 9. Prostitution. The Upper Nine Streams are: 1. Scholars, 2. Physicians, 3. Diviners, 4. Geomancers, 5. Painters, 6. Craftsmen, 7. Monks, 8. Daoists, 9. Players of the guqin and chess.

Straw hat, top hat, and porcelain tea cup

inkstone (ink pool) ink lake (ink cartridge) pen case

(25) Demographic composition and their political status

The total value of the six types of products exported from Xunwu is as follows

The export of timber is primarily funded by the guest merchants from Longchuan, with local timber merchants providing assistance. They all go up the mountain to inspect the timber, and the prices for the timber that can be "felled" are negotiated with the mountain owner. The guest merchants hire workers to fell the trees, while the local merchants take care to ensure that the timber is not stolen by others. The months of April and May are the peak seasons for felling trees; after June, the number of trees felled gradually decreases, and by September, no more trees are felled. Once a tree is felled, it is stripped of its bark. After the bark is removed, the timber must be left on the ground for at least two months to dry. If the market price is favorable after two months, it is sold profitably, and often the timber is bundled and sent downriver, sometimes taking three to four years to complete. Local merchants are in a subordinate position to the timber traders (guest merchants) from outside; they refer to the timber traders as "bosses," while the timber traders call them "foremen." The distribution of profits is such that the boss receives ninety percent, while the foreman receives ten percent.

(5) Goods from Huizhou

(10) Yellow smoke

The primary business along this route involves chickens, followed by cattle, and then pigs. Most of the chickens come from Tangjiang, Nankang, and Xinfeng, with a small amount from Anyuan and even some from Suichuan. The route passes through Wangmu Ferry, Jinjixu, Xintian, and Banshi, avoiding Anyuan City, and instead goes through a location five miles north of Anyuan City, entering Xunwu and then Meixian. From Meixian, the chickens are transported to Songkou for export to Shantou. Every day, a significant number of chickens pass through Xunwu, with the majority coming from Anyuan, and a smaller portion arriving via Menling. Daily, there are at least one hundred dan, with the maximum reaching one hundred thirty dan. Each dan weighs sixty jin, so on average, this amounts to six thousand jin per day. Chicken traders transport the chickens from the Tangjiang area all the way to Meixian City or Xinpuxu (taking the route from Xunwu to Datuo to board at Xinpuxu, heading directly to Songkou without passing through Meixian) for sale, with a price of five mao per jin (the price for Xunwu chickens is four mao per jin). This results in a total of six thousand jin daily, valued at three thousand yuan. Over the course of three hundred sixty days a year, this amounts to a total value of one million eighty thousand yuan. The chickens sold in Meixian and Songkou fetch a price of over seven mao per jin, which can be considered a substantial profit.

Squid must be used for the banquet, even if it is ordinary. The seventh main gate

The style of his wooden furniture is predominantly traditional, catering entirely to feudal landlords; however, there is also a portion that adopts progressive designs, specifically for the equipment used in schools and churches. He has dealings with Pastor Bao from the Gospel Hall. The construction of the Gospel Hall and the church hospital outside the South Gate, including the wooden materials and furniture, was contracted to him.

(4) The business from Meixian to Anyuan and Xinfeng

Scarf size comb watercolor

The first major gate of the salted fish

White bone buckle, black bone buckle, conch buckle

Wang Putai, also from Zhangshu, had a capital of around 100 yuan and colluded with the local tyrant He Zhen and Father Chen from the Catholic Church (a person from Meixian). Father Chen lent him 400 yuan, and in addition, he borrowed 200 yuan from the local prostitute Lai Fengzi, opening a foreign goods store besides the pharmacy. Where did Lai Fengzi get the money? She had been with a company commander under Lai Shihuang, who returned to Xunwu last year with 300 yuan of ill-gotten gains. Wang Putai sought ways to curry favor with Lai Fengzi to borrow this sum. Once he secured the loan, Wang Putai presented many gifts to Lai Fengzi, such as floral water, handkerchiefs, and so on. She had been with a company commander under Lai Shihuang, who returned to Xunwu last year with 300 yuan of ill-gotten gains. Wang Putai sought ways to curry favor with Lai Fengzi to borrow this sum. Once he secured the loan, Wang Putai presented many gifts to Lai Fengzi, such as floral water, handkerchiefs, and so on.

Copper kettle (for brewing tea) lightweight iron pot lightweight iron pan

The wooden utensils needed by the workers and the poor are supplied at the market. On the first, fourth, and seventh market days, items such as boards, buckets, water buckets, basins, rice steamers, rice bowls, rice spoons, water spoons, pot lids, and large basins (used for covering vegetable bowls and pot tops), cutting boards, washing basins, grain baskets (for carrying harvested grain to the threshing ground), grain scoops (for threshing), threshing trays (for pushing), ladders, and other items are all brought to sell by craftsmen who live in the mountains and specialize in making round wood. Not every market day has all these items; they are supplied according to the season and demand. Threshing trays need to be custom-made. Windmills can only be constructed by master craftsmen from Shanghang. There are about ten master craftsmen from Shanghang in the county, who come once or twice a year. As for waterwheels, there is only one in the entire county among hundreds of farming families, because the county has many dikes and irrigation channels, and droughts are rare, making waterwheels unnecessary.

water pipe, rod, chimney, and nails

Cattle, like chickens, primarily come from Tangjiang and Xinfeng, with a small amount from Anyuan, while there are none from the local area of Xunwu. Unlike chickens, which merely pass through Xunwu, cattle are sold there. The cattle market is located at the riverbank outside the east gate of the county town, where sellers are from Tangjiang, Xinfeng, and Anyuan, while buyers come from Meixian, Wuping, Jiaoling, and Pingyuan, with brokers (known as "yaren") being local to Xunwu. Instead of being exported through Songkou to Shantou, it is likely that the cattle traders buy them to resell for farming or to sell to cities for slaughter. The cattle market is located at the riverbank outside the east gate of the county town, where sellers are from Tangjiang, Xinfeng, and Anyuan, while buyers come from Meixian, Wuping, Jiaoling, and Pingyuan, with brokers (known as "yaren") being local to Xunwu. Instead of being exported through Songkou to Shantou, it is likely that the cattle traders buy them to resell for farming or to sell to cities for slaughter. Each transaction incurs a fee of half a dime from both the buyer and seller for each cattle. The cattle tax is contracted out, with an annual payment of 1,740 yuan to the government. Previously, the cattle tax was bid once a year, with the highest bidder winning; it has recently changed to a bidding process every three years. The tax on cattle is assessed as follows: for yellow cattle, four dimes per head, and for water buffalo, five dimes per head, referred to as "xiang." After the tax is collected, a lime stamp with the character "xiang" is marked on the cattle, allowing the buyer to take the cattle away. In addition to the tax, there is also a donation, which has been recently added, amounting to one dime per cattle. The contractor's tax payment to the government, along with their own profits, exceeds 2,000 yuan annually. Assuming an average tax of four and a half dimes per cattle, it is estimated that over 4,500 cattle are sold annually in Xunwu. The previously mentioned figure of 3,320 cattle per year is the minimum estimate.

Domino mahjong tiles and jujubes

The types of goods are the same as those at Menling, but the quantity is less than that at Menling, approximately at a ratio of 60% for Menling and 40% for Anyuan and Xinfeng. This is because the goods from Menling are sold to a wide range of places such as Ruijin, Shicheng, Yudu, and Xingguo, while the regions of Anyuan and Xinfeng are relatively limited.

Every year, the herbal medicine business amounts to 3,000 yuan for Baihetang, 800 yuan for Qingrentang, 600 yuan each for Xindesheng and Tianrenhe, 400 yuan for Wangputai, and 300 yuan each for Huangyuxing and Fuchuntang, totaling 6,000 yuan

There is an abundance of goods in the gray market shops, and "exotic delicacies" is their slogan. The rise and fall of gray market traders is also quite intriguing. Below, I will first list various categories of goods, and then observe their gains and losses.

There is only one street, no shops, and transactions occur in the public area of the Chenghuang Temple. He Zizhen is the director of the Public Security Bureau and has recently become the captain of the police team, a reactionary leader in Xunwu. In the sixteenth year of the Republic of China, he received a notice to open a bean shop. The business was bustling in November and December, with eight hundred dan in two months. The total for the year was about one thousand dan, with each dan (one dan equals five dou, and one dou equals ten sheng) yielding a commission of two sheng. The price per dan of beans was seven yuan and fifty cents (one sheng costs one and a half cents), which amounts to a commission of approximately four percent, yielding three hundred yuan annually. He Zizhen is a local resident, living outside the East Gate. He had a difficult childhood, graduated from Pingyuan Middle School, studied for two years at the Henan Mining School, and returned to work as a primary school teacher for about eight or nine years, with Gu Bai and Pan Li being his students. In the sixteenth year of the Republic of China, around the time of the purge, conflicts arose between the "Cooperative Faction" led by Gu and Pan and the "New Xun Faction" led by He Zizhen. A battle occurred in April of the sixteenth year. In the seventeenth year, the 325 uprising drove He Zizhen away. In April, He Zizhen regained power, became prominent, and heavily penalized the revolutionary faction's funds. He later served again as the director of the Public Security Bureau and captain of the police team, gradually accumulating wealth and purchasing land in the suburbs. Before the fourteenth year of the Republic of China, prior to the conflict with the Cooperative Faction, he represented the interests of commercial capital and initiated the "Liuyue Alumni Association" to establish a public school for the common people, which was during the tenth year of the Republic. In June of the fourteenth year, the Cooperative Faction held a large meeting in the county town, and as the revolutionary faction grew stronger, He compromised with the feudal gentry and secured a leadership position over the feudal faction, becoming the most notorious reactionary leader in Xunwu. When the Red Army arrived in Xunwu, he led the police team (Jingwei Corps) to flee to Xiangshan.

(4) Oil

In addition to the two main categories of cloth and foreign goods, the grocery store also sells yellow tobacco, pastries, and incense paper candles, as well as a selection of small quantities of oil and salt.

The adversaries of the inn are the police and the officers at the yamen, as the police and officers often conduct inspections, frequently using these checks to trouble the guests and seize their belongings. For instance, under the pretext of searching for opium, they might swiftly steal the guests' money. During times of martial law, guests may also suffer from unwarranted calamities due to inappropriate responses. As a result, guests are wary of staying at the inns in the city; even before nightfall, they prefer to rest in places such as Huangyang, Heling, Changju, and Xinzai, which are located three to ten miles outside the city, significantly impacting the business of the inns.

The price for a haircut is 0.1 yuan for a shaved head or a buzz cut, 0.15 yuan for various new styles, and 0.05 yuan for a beard trim

stationery envelopes diary

The average price of cattle is 40 yuan per head, totaling 132,800 yuan for the entire year

Iron wire ink

(1) Speaking of the market in Xunwu City, one cannot help but feel a sense of nostalgia for the past. In earlier times, the business in Xunwu City was twice as large as it is now. The peak period was around the 27th and 28th years of the Guangxu reign, when not only merchants from Chengjiang and Jitan in the northern half of the county came to Xunwu City to conduct business, but also those from Huangxiang, Liucheng in the southern half, and even from Bachi in Pingyuan County. This was because during the Qing Dynasty, goods from Ganzhou were sold through Xunwu to the Dongjiang region, which in turn purchased goods from Ganzhou, making it unnecessary to mention places like Liucheng. Thus, the central position of Xunwu City naturally led to its prosperous trade. Since the development of foreign goods trade in Meixian and the cloth trade in Xingning, the business of local products from Ganzhou has been taken away, resulting in merchants from Dongjiang and even Bachi no longer coming to Xunwu City for trade, and those from the southern half of the county, such as Liucheng, also ceased to do so. Furthermore, prior to the 27th and 28th years of Guangxu, it was still the so-called "era of titles and honors," and the county's major trade consisted of silk from Ganzhou. As the situation changed, the demand for silk decreased, and by the first year of the Republic of China, the abolition of the "titles and honors" system led to the near-total decline of silk, causing a significant downturn in the county's trade. Xunwu City is a place where the fierce rise and fall of handicraft goods and capitalist commodities has been vividly displayed, making it worthy of our attention. After that time, as the situation changed, the demand for silk decreased, and by the first year of the Republic of China, the abolition of the "titles and honors" system led to the near-total decline of silk, causing a significant downturn in the county's trade. Xunwu City is a place where the fierce rise and fall of handicraft goods and capitalist commodities has been vividly displayed, making it worthy of our attention. Additionally, Xunwu City still operates as a place where irregular shop trading and regular market trading coexist. It has a population of approximately 2,700, and the inner and outer walls of the sturdy city reflect its lonely atmosphere. It only becomes lively for a few hours during the market days of the first, fourth, and seventh months, which is also valuable information.

Only salt is a major commodity. There are a few items, such as salted fish and brown sugar, that are slightly available for sale in Xunwu. Apart from that, there is nothing else

Xin Desheng, the owner surnamed Du, is also from Zhangshu, with a capital of four to five hundred yuan. Tian Renhe, Huang Yuxing, and Fuchuntang are all from Zhangshu, each with a capital of one hundred yuan

The fourth individual, Luo Yicheng, operates alone with a capital of over 1,000 yuan, earning an annual profit of four to five hundred yuan. He is very frugal, often eating only a few vegetables and wearing clothes made of coarse fabric. He has two apprentices, while his family has not come to Xingning. He is originally from Xingning and came to Xunwu many years ago to sell sugar. In the county town and surrounding areas, he would sell sugar by breaking it into pieces, earning one cash for a small piece of sugar (now it takes at least one copper coin to break a piece of sugar). Alternatively, he would exchange sugar for various goods (such as hair, scrap copper, scrap iron, pig and cow bones, and old cotton quilts). This is how he started his business. He has been in Xunwu for over thirty years, became wealthy, and has been running a grocery store for more than ten years (over fifteen years is referred to as more than ten years)

(7) Alcohol

(2) The business from Anyuan to Meixian

Silk pants, belt, western-style trousers, and body powder

Rattan clips (rattan boxes) and foreign indigo (blue) dyeing materials (magenta, black powder, gray powder, and foreign colors)

(19) Making jewelry

Three practice lanterns with square lights and hexagonal lights

Before the Republic of China, there was little to no tinplate, and labor costs were low. The cast iron business in Xunyu was larger than it is now, with capable foundries able to produce over 20,000 yuan annually. During the Qing Dynasty, although there were only two foundries, they collectively produced over 40,000 yuan. Currently, while the number of foundries has increased, the output of each foundry has decreased. The main reasons for this are the high labor costs (which are driven up by the high prices of foreign industrial products) and the intrusion of tinplate.

Wang Putai is a participant in the reactionary organization, and he must attend the meetings of the reactionaries, even though he does not hold any official position on the surface. Chen Zhicheng from the grocery store, Bao Huaxiang from the smuggled goods store, and Tong Laian from the fire shop are all engaged in politics as businessmen. When the Soviet forces entered the city, all four establishments were confiscated

The merchant is one, three, five, five

The city of Xunwu, when dissected in terms of its population composition, reveals that it is still entirely an agricultural and handicraft city. The distribution of the nearly 2,700 residents across various industries is as follows:

(8) Xunwu City

(17) Forging iron

Hair growth cream, gloves, blush

(24) Tongshan Society [22]

How many cattle are there each year

(1) The business from Menling to Meixian

(6) Butchery

Making tofu is not an easy task. As the saying goes: "Quick to learn, difficult to master." It is also said: "Steaming wine and grinding tofu, one cannot claim to be a master."

The yellow tobacco found in grocery stores and gray market shops is mostly purchased from establishments that specialize in the production of this yellow tobacco

There are more than ten establishments, including Liu Wanli, He Changlong, Liu Hongxing, Wen Deli, Pan Fali, Pan Jinli, Tang Riheng, Tong Laian, Zeng Jitao, Jiu Saizi, Da Zhi Si Saizi, Gu Liufang, Liu An'er (also selling white liquor), Gu Yuchang, among others. The majority of the customers in the fire shop are porters, accounting for eighty percent. Those selling cattle, carrying bundles (heading elsewhere to seek a living), people coming to the city from the countryside to settle disputes, students going to Ganzhou, street performers, sellers of medicinal plasters, fortune tellers, monks begging for alms, doctors, feng shui practitioners, and those singing beggar songs (specifically singing Lianhua Luo) make up the remaining twenty percent. Among the eighty percent of porter customers, most are poultry vendors, while a minority are those carrying tobacco leaves.

Yang Qingren, a native of Zhangshu, previously had around 500 to 600 yuan. Last year, his son lost several hundred yuan through gambling, and now he only has about 200 to 300 yuan left

Hair clippers (all four types are used for shaving heads) wallet (suitcase)

(6) The export goods of Xunwu

In the fire shop, the Tonglai'an store is reactionary. The owner, Chen Dengqi, came from a poor peasant background, his family residing in Liucheng, so impoverished that they had no food to eat. Because he was skilled in manual labor, he taught in the rural areas around Liucheng. In the 7th and 8th years of the Republic, he became a law enforcement officer in the county town, and by the 14th year of the Republic, he opened the Tonglai'an store while also running an oil business. He colluded with the authorities and was on good terms with the local tyrant Chen Tufeng from Liucheng. During the 325 uprising, he protected County Magistrate Xie Yin from danger, earning Xie's appreciation. When the regime was restored, he was promoted to the leader of the Jingwei Brigade. He led his troops to the Shuangqiao area to abduct people for ransom and burned down the houses of revolutionary masses. After County Magistrate Xie left, he returned to the fire shop. This time, the Soviet confiscated his property.

Currently, no one is apprenticing in the umbrella industry. Take Xunyu City as an example; not only is this the case now, but for nearly the past decade, there has been a lack of interest in learning how to make umbrellas. The reasons are as follows: First, the future of the umbrella industry appears to be hopeless; second, apprentices in umbrella shops have a more arduous experience compared to those in grocery stores. Typically, one begins learning to make umbrellas at the age of thirteen or fourteen, which involves cooking for the entire shop, buying groceries, sweeping the floor, and picking up all sorts of miscellaneous items in the workshop.

The liquor tax is indispensable. Depending on the size of the business, large hotels pay approximately 0.4 yuan per month, small hotels pay about 0.2 yuan per month, and there are also those that pay 0.15 yuan.

Copper locks, copper padlocks, iron locks

The larger stores number over ten, along with a total of sixteen or seventeen grocery stores. The larger ones include: Zhi Cheng (from Xingning), Lun Tai Xing (from Jian), Yi Tai Xing (a partnership between locals and Jian residents), Yi Cheng, Pan Yue Li, Wang Run Xiang, Pan Deng Ji, Xiang Xing, Yong Yuan Jin (the last six are all from Xingning), Jun Yi (a local who started as a porter), Luo Jin Feng (a local, the only landlord among the grocers, collecting rent of three hundred loads), Fan Shun Chang (from Fujian), and Huang Yu Feng (from Fujian). These thirteen are the larger grocery stores, among which Huang Yu Feng primarily deals in yellow tobacco and paper. The others mainly focus on textiles, followed by foreign goods. This small market surprisingly sells a variety of foreign goods, with a total of one hundred and thirty-one types listed:

(8) gray market goods

The fifth is shiitake mushrooms. The main production areas are the Dahu Dong and Xiahu Dong at the junction of Sanbiao and Anyuan, as well as the mountainous regions around Shang and Xiaping at the boundary of the urban area and Anyuan. Additionally, there is production in Yezi Zhai at the border of Shuangqiao District and Pingyuan. Shiitake mushrooms are priced at 2 yuan per pound, generating an annual revenue of approximately 10,000 yuan. Anyuan produces more shiitake mushrooms than Xunwu, which are sold to Nanyong, while those from Xunwu are sold to Xingning. There are no buyers coming to collect; instead, people from Xunwu take them to sell.

Tide salt and Huai salt. Tide salt is good, but expensive, costing about 10 to 11 jin for 1 yuan (small foreign currency). Tide salt is dark blue-black in color, clean, and has preservative properties. Huai salt is white, but of inferior quality and bland in taste, thus it is cheaper, with 16 to 17 jin available for 1 yuan. Only those who are greedy for cheap prices would consume Huai salt. In Xunwu, tide salt has always been more prevalent, while Huai salt is less common.

The head of Xunwu County once had three members who joined the Tongshan Society, and they bowed to the society just like the other members.

Magu's smoke curls around the parasol

Fifth Gate of Pigskin

The price of iron is now twice as expensive as it was thirty years ago (in the 25th or 26th year of the Guangxu era). At that time, the highest price for pig iron was no more than 1.1 dimes per hundred catties (approximately 40 pounds), whereas now it is 3.2 dimes, which means one needs to spend 8 cents to buy a pound of pig iron. Three pounds of pig iron can be forged into one pound of wrought iron, priced at 5 dimes.

The second is tea. It is produced in areas such as the western section of the urban area, Xiangshang, Xiaping, the southern section of the map, Gangshang, and the Ezi Lake region. The tea picking season is from March, April, May, July, to August. Each market produces about 20 dan (each dan weighing 70 jin), with a total annual output of 2,000 dan from 100 markets, amounting to 140,000 jin, with each jin priced at 0.5 yuan, totaling 70,000 yuan. Over 80% is exported to Xingning, while less than 20% is sent to Meixian. During the tea picking season, merchants from Xingning come to the countryside to purchase fresh leaves for their own production. Among the fresh leaves, "pre-rain tea" (before the Grain Rain, also known as "first spring tea") is priced at 1 yuan for 8 jin, and 5 jin of fresh leaves can produce 1 jin of tea. Over 80% is exported to Xingning, while less than 20% is sent to Meixian. During the tea picking season, merchants from Xingning come to the countryside to purchase fresh leaves for their own production. Among the fresh leaves, "pre-rain tea" (before the Grain Rain, also known as "first spring tea") is priced at 1 yuan for 8 jin, and 5 jin of fresh leaves can produce 1 jin of tea. This pre-rain tea is quite expensive, costing 1 yuan per jin. "Second spring" (from March to April) and "autumn tea" (from July to August) can be purchased for 1 yuan for 15 jin of fresh tea leaves, and the produced tea sells for 0.5 yuan per jin. Those engaged in the tea business rely on second spring and autumn tea for profit, as first spring tea does not yield much profit. "Second spring" (from March to April) and "autumn tea" (from July to August) can be purchased for 1 yuan for 15 jin of fresh tea leaves, and the produced tea sells for 0.5 yuan per jin. Those engaged in the tea business rely on second spring and autumn tea for profit, as first spring tea does not yield much profit. In December, some tea can still be produced, known as "snow tea," which is as expensive as pre-rain tea and is consumed by upper-class families. The output is limited, and merchants do not earn much from it. Outside the urban area, Yanyangping in Shuangqiao District also produces tea, although very little (worth only over 100 yuan annually), it is of good quality because it is not grown on the ridge but in vegetable gardens.

August 3, 250 heads

The third is paper. It is exported from Huangxiang to three locations: Xingning (via Luofu and Luogang), Meixian (via Zhongkeng, and also via Cenfeng), and Longchuan (via Beiling). On average, each market handles sixty dan, with a total of one hundred markets throughout the year, amounting to six thousand dan. The price per dan is eight yuan, totaling forty-eight thousand yuan

The street vendor business of selling counterfeit goods typically requires a capital of only a few dozen yuan, with the maximum being no more than one hundred yuan. Their merchandise is sourced from large counterfeit shops in the city and from passing peddlers. These street vendors often manage to make a profit through hard work and diligence. Many businesses in the city started as street vendors, including Pan Zhengji, He Xiangsheng, Luo Yisheng, Liu Hengtai, and Fan Laosi. They have homes but do not operate storefronts. On the 1st, 4th, and 7th of each month, they carry their loads to the local market, while on the 3rd, 6th, and 9th, they head to the Jitan market, thus earning a modest income.

The oil lamp does not light (referring to the grass lamp)

Among the one hundred thirty-one types, merchants refer to them as "foreign goods," which are sold in grocery stores. Among these, twenty-three types with horizontal lines have higher sales, while those without horizontal lines have lower sales. Of the one hundred thirty-one types, one hundred eighteen come from Meixian and Xingning, with the majority coming from Meixian. Only foreign socks, scarves, and other woven products are mostly sourced from Xingning. The two types of Ming tiles and couplets come entirely from Ganzhou. Eight types, including leather pillows, letter paper, envelopes, copper pots, foreign oil, fans, water pipes, and brushes, are sourced from both Meixian and Ganzhou. The leather pillows, letter paper, envelopes, porcelain, fans, and water pipes from Ganzhou not only dominate in quantity but are also of better quality. The letter paper and envelopes from Ganzzhou are made of domestic paper, while those from Meixian are made of foreign paper. Foreign oil and paper cigarettes are more commonly sourced from Guangdong, with fewer coming from Ganzhou. Paper cigarettes are sourced from Meixian, Xingning, and Ganzhou. The brushes are also predominantly sourced from Ganzhou, with only a very small quantity from Meixian.

Iron padlock, copper tent hook, bone tent hook

In Shicheng and Ruijin, rice is transported to Menling, primarily via Luotang, Xiaba (belonging to Wuping, at the junction of three provinces), and Xinpu (belonging to Jiaoling, thirty miles from Meixian), with approximately three hundred loads passing through daily. The rice transported from Xunwu to Meixian is quite rare. The main commodities transported from Xunwu are oil beans. The number of bean loads is double that of oil, with some loads containing five dou and others three dou, varying accordingly. Each dou is valued at one yuan and fifty cents. For each market (held every three days), five boats are used for transportation, with each boat carrying fourteen loads. Each load (calculated at four dou) is worth six yuan, making the total value for each market four hundred twenty yuan, and for one hundred markets a total of forty-two thousand yuan annually. The number of bean loads is double that of oil, with some loads containing five dou and others three dou, varying accordingly. Each dou is valued at one yuan and fifty cents. For each market (held every three days), five boats are used for transportation, with each boat carrying fourteen loads. Each load (calculated at four dou) is worth six yuan, making the total value for each market four hundred twenty yuan, and for one hundred markets a total of forty-two thousand yuan annually. Additionally, there are shoulder-carried loads, with twenty loads per market, totaling two thousand eight hundred loads annually, valued at sixteen thousand eight hundred yuan. The combined value of both items amounts to fifty-eight thousand eight hundred yuan.

Artisan 29711

In a small city with a population of 2,700, there are about thirty to forty establishments known as "old goods" and "young goods," including notable figures such as Chang Jiao, Yue E, Zhong Si Mei, Xie San Mei, Huang Zhao Kun, Wu Xiu, Run Feng, Da Guan Lan, Xiao Guan Lan, Zhao E, Lai Zhao, Yu Shu, Wu Feng, and Yi E, all of whom are well-known personalities within this struggling community. Except for Da Guan Lan and Yi E, all are referred to as "young goods," with Run Feng, Wu Xiu, Yue E, Wu Feng, and Zhao Kun being even more famous. Xiao Guan Lan, Zhao E, Lai Zhao, Yu Shu, Wu Feng, and Yi E are all prominent figures in this suffering community. Aside from Da Guan Lan and Yi E, all are considered "young goods," with Run Feng, Wu Xiu, Yue E, Wu Feng, and Zhao Kun being particularly renowned.

Two and a half liters of beans make one table of tofu, and the price of two and a half liters of beans is fifty cents, while the price of one table of tofu is sixty-five cents, yielding a profit of fifteen cents. The term "one table of tofu" refers to forty-six pieces of large tofu, which are sold individually at seven cents each, with three copper coins equating to one cent. If it is small tofu, then there are ninety-two pieces per table, sold at fourteen cents each, with three copper coins for two cents. There are four types of tofu: soft tofu, fried tofu, tofu dry, and thin dry tofu. If it is small tofu, then there are ninety-two pieces per table, sold at fourteen cents each, with three copper coins for two cents. Soft tofu sells the most, followed by fried tofu, then tofu dry; thin dry tofu sells the least, as it is only used when someone is doing a good deed. Making money from a tofu shop mainly comes from using tofu residue to raise pigs. Because on a normal day, only one table of tofu can be sold, and only in special circumstances can two tables be sold, the daily profit ranges from one and a half cents to three cents. Pigs can be raised twice a year, with each batch yielding thirty to forty yuan. Since only one table of tofu can be sold on a normal day, and only in special circumstances can two tables be sold, the daily profit ranges from one and a half cents to three cents. Pigs can be raised twice a year, with each batch yielding thirty to forty yuan. If raising meat pigs, each shop can raise four pigs per year, approximately four hundred jin, yielding one hundred yuan. However, raising meat pigs requires more feed, making it less profitable than raising pigs.

The local businesses include two from the local area (Huitong and Xinfachang), one from Pingyuan (Hanxiangsheng), one from Wan'an (Zhouyuchang), and one jointly established with the local area (Wanfengxing). Huitong has a capital of 3,000 yuan, making it the largest. Zhouyuchang previously had a capital of 2,000 yuan, but last year, due to engaging in the paper business, he was robbed and lost over 900 yuan, leaving him with around 1,000 yuan now. Both of these businesses have been operating for over 20 years. The third business is Hanxiangsheng, with a capital of about 700 yuan, which has been in operation for over ten years. The fourth business, Wanfengxing, started with 200 yuan and has been running for four years, now having a capital of around 4500 yuan. The fifth is Xinfachang, which has been operating for over ten years, but its capital is barely 100 yuan.

In the entire county, important towns such as Jitan, Chengjiang, Shipaixia, Chetou, Niudouguang, Liucheng, Huangxiang (which adopted machines earlier than any other place), Gongping, Huangtangdu, and Cenfeng, among others, all have sewing machines. As a result, 30% of the population in the county has already abandoned manual labor in favor of machine-made clothing, with the pace of mechanization in the southern half of Xunwu County being particularly rapid

Mirror, glasses, foreign knife

Outside the South Gate, there are two coffin shops, each with a capital of only forty yuan, producing what are known as "fire materials" (also called "fire boards"), intended for the use of the impoverished. Landlords, capitalists, and even slightly better-off tenant farmers and workers typically hire carpenters to make coffins. Only the extremely poor or those in urgent need would purchase such fire materials. Those who have lost something or had their belongings damaged often curse vehemently: "What a disgrace! Only the extremely poor or those in urgent need would buy such fire materials. Those who have lost something or had their belongings damaged often curse vehemently: 'What a disgrace! What a disgrace to humanity! Made of fire boards! Made of fire materials!' (The 'cut' in 'what a disgrace' means to eliminate.) This illustrates that such coffins made of fire materials are only used by those of disrepute. Wealthy families hire carpenters to make coffins, and the wood used, apart from local sources, also comes from Shanghang, where the craftsmen who make windmills also double as coffin makers.

The following is an analysis of the living conditions and organizational content of this city based on various goods

(2) Salt

slippers, pencil, fountain pen

In February, an average of one hundred heads per month, totaling two hundred heads

There are two types of umbrellas: feather silk umbrellas and foreign cloth umbrellas. Feather silk umbrellas are typically imported from Japan and cannot be produced in China. The foreign cloth and iron frames of the foreign cloth umbrellas also come from abroad; the Chinese assemble them and add a handle. The price of a feather silk umbrella is generally over 1.5 yuan, while a foreign cloth umbrella costs around 1.2 to 1.3 yuan. The sales ratio of paper umbrellas, foreign cloth umbrellas, and feather silk umbrellas is as follows: paper umbrellas and foreign cloth umbrellas each account for 30%, while feather silk umbrellas account for 40%.

From Shicheng and Ruijin, rice and beans are the main commodities, valued at several hundred thousand yuan. From Xingguo, tea oil is the main commodity, with some rice as well. There are no significant goods coming from Yudu and Huichang

Pen holder glue practice book

chicken

Liu Junji, a native of Xingning, opened a shop in this city last year. Previously, there was no such thing as tinware. With a capital of several dozen yuan, he operates with his wife and an apprentice, making various essential daily items from oil cans. These include small tin lamps, containers for holding oil, containers for holding tea oil, oil scoops, kettles for boiling tea, oil filters, wine filters, containers for tea leaves, and various small boxes. Thus, such a tinware shop is a necessity for society. The business is quite profitable; they purchase oil cans from local grocery stores in places like this city, Jitan, Sanbiao, Chengjiang, and Niudouguang, and sell the tinware for six mao each. However, when the Red Army entered the city, Liu Junji inexplicably fled with the reactionaries.

Lu Quanli, considered the second water goods shop, is from Meixian and has a capital of over 1,000 to 2,000 yuan. In addition to water goods, he also deals in tung oil, tea, mushrooms, and tea oil, transporting them to Xing and Mei for "business operations." His water goods business is not as successful as Xing Ji's, but this particular item is something that Xing Ji does not have. He is able to make some transactions in Meixian because he is a local, and his business is quite prosperous, making it easy for him to handle amounts of 1,000 to 800 yuan. He and his wife employ two teachers (each with an annual salary of 60 yuan), and aside from expenses, he earns at least 200 to 300 yuan each year. In prosperous years, he can earn 1,000 to 800 yuan as well. He is able to make some transactions in Meixian because he is a local, and his business is quite prosperous, making it easy for him to handle amounts of 1,000 to 800 yuan. He and his wife employ two teachers (each with an annual salary of 60 yuan), and aside from expenses, he earns at least 200 to 300 yuan each year. In prosperous years, he can earn 1,000 to 800 yuan as well.

sweatshirt fan (black paper fan, white paper fan)

A decade ago, during a prosperous era of commerce, merchants were the most frequent patrons of prostitutes, followed by gentry, while the sons of gentry (the so-called young masters) rarely engaged in such activities. Over the past ten years, the situation has reversed: now, the gentry are the most frequent patrons, the young masters come next, and merchants engage the least. Why have merchants reduced their patronage? Because their businesses have declined. Why have the gentry increased their patronage? They have taken on legal cases, using brothels as their lodgings, residing there for extended periods, only returning home during holidays. Where does their money for patronage come from? In legal disputes, a villager might present one hundred yuan, of which they give twenty yuan to the villager and keep eighty yuan for themselves, thus securing funds for the prostitutes. Why did young masters not frequent the city for patronage in the past, but now do so frequently? Schools like "Graduation Company" have emerged, leading young masters to leave their warm homes to study in the city, where they feel quite lonely, resulting in an increase in their visits to brothels.

Jitan ranks first, with salt, rice, oil, and beans being the main commodities. Niudouguang comes in second, with salt and rice slightly less than Jitan, while oil and beans are on par with Jitan. Liucheng is third, with cloth being the largest commodity, imported from Xingning; oil and beans follow. The county town ranks fourth, with cattle trading being the primary business; the second is oil, salt, and rice trading; and the third is cloth (previously, Ganzhou had cloth coming in, but since the 17th year of the Republic, it has ceased, as it was woven from local yarn, "one thick, one thin," and lost business to the foreign yarn from Xingning and Meixian. The cloth from Xingning and Meixian is of good quality, "one palm flat"). Although the poultry business is substantial, it is not counted as it only passes through without returning to the "market." Chengjiang ranks fifth, with oil, beans, and salt being significant here; rice follows; opium is also a major commodity, coming from Xingning and Yudu. Shipaixia ranks sixth, serving as the main port for oil, salt, rice, and beans, but most transactions are merely passing through, with only some trade in salt and rice. Poultry, pigs, and cattle also pass through.

In this city, there are three blacksmith shops, two operated by people from Yudu and one by a person from Anyuan. All the rural blacksmiths are from Yudu. There are many ironworkers in Yudu, with approximately 3,700 to 3,800 furnaces in operation. Each high furnace employs four workers, while each low furnace employs three, totaling around 13,000 ironworkers. They forge iron in Jiangxi, and their products reach Fujian, Guangdong, and even as far as Southeast Asia.

The first day of each month is known as "Niu Gang". November is the peak month, with each gang having seven to eight hundred cattle. January and February follow, with each gang having one to two hundred cattle. The months of March, April, May, June, and July are the slowest, with each gang having as few as three to five cattle, and at most just over ten. The first day of August marks the opening day of the cattle market, and from this day onward, business gradually picks up, with each gang having between forty to fifty to sixty to seventy cattle. In September and October, each gang has around one hundred cattle.

Three blacksmith shops: Master Ye, Master Yang, and Master Li. Master Yang is from Anyuan, while both Ye and Li are from Du. Each shop has a capital of around fifty yuan. They forge items such as bamboo knives, firewood knives, axes, hoes, iron rakes (i.e., rake heads), weeding rakes, large rakes (used with oxen), carp knives, shovels (used for frying), fire tongs, fire shovels, hooks (for fetching water), iron spoons (for scooping rice and oil), various iron tools for carpenters (including various types of planes, chisels, slanting shovels, hammers, bench clamps, angle drills, and cutting knives), iron rulers (for pressing fabric when making clothes), soft knives (for sewing), horse knives, and shovels (in the local dialect of Xunwu called "Liaozi", in Meixian called "Tiaobizi", and in Dongjiang called "Jianchuan"). Aside from horse knives, guandao (a type of sword), and double knives (clasp knives), the rest are common household tools sold in the vicinity of the town. The forging techniques and tools are all traditional.

Lotus-shaped porcelain table lamp with a canopy design

As mentioned above regarding the secondary business of foreign goods in the grocery store, let us now discuss the primary business in the grocery store—fabrics

Landlord 783

The fabrics include coarse cloth (varieties in green, white, floral, gray, red, green, and willow pattern), bamboo cloth (varieties in blue, white, gray, black, red, glossy, green, and printed), bamboo gauze (varieties in white, gray, black, blue, willow pattern, and indigo), satin (various luxurious silk fabrics, various spun silk, sweet potato silk, and fragrant cloud silk), woolen fabric (thick wool, coarse wool, and mirror wool), and summer cloth (varieties in white, blue, black, machine white, and wave pattern). Coarse cloth is made by Chinese people using foreign yarn, originating from Xingning. Bamboo gauze (varieties in white, gray, black, blue, willow pattern, and indigo), satin (various luxurious silk fabrics, various spun silk, sweet potato silk, and fragrant cloud silk), woolen fabric (thick wool, coarse wool, and mirror wool), and summer cloth (varieties in white, blue, black, machine white, and wave pattern) are also included. Coarse cloth is made by Chinese people using foreign yarn, originating from Xingning. Bamboo cloth and bamboo gauze are referred to as foreign cloth, coming from Hong Kong to Meixian. The luxurious silk fabrics and spun silk from Hangzhou come to Ganzhou and Meixian, where women from Xunwu buy them to weave headscarves, which every woman possesses. The total fabric business in the city is valued at approximately 100,000 yuan annually, with sales concentrated in the urban area and Sanbiao.

The major imports include foreign goods (tooth powder, toothbrushes, flashlights, rubber-soled shoes, soap, umbrellas, oil lamps, and tin products, among others. Items such as tooth powder and toothbrushes are predominantly made in China, but they are commonly referred to as foreign goods), seafood (such as kelp, sea cucumbers, fish maw, squid, mussels, and salted fish), and salt (ten years ago, Hui salt was prevalent, while three to four years ago, Chao salt was more common. This was due to different routes monopolized by merchants. Currently, Hui salt is again more common, due to the reactionary forces in places like Bachi and Zhongkeng blocking the routes for Chao salt to the red areas. Once salt reaches Menling, it continues to Xinguo), foreign oil (mostly Asia brand), and cloth (less from Meixian, more from Xingning, where they purchase foreign yarn to produce their own. The weaving industry in Xingning is quite developed, and general business in Xingning is larger than in Meixian). These five categories also include a good amount of sugar and flour.

Min Sun Sixth Gate

Children's toys (such as toy guns, trains, roly-polies, figurines, small balls, whistles, and many more)

The sixth is tea oil. It is produced in the areas of Shuangqiao, Datong, Douyan, Huangtangdu, Lantian, and Datian. The annual output is approximately 15,000 jin, priced at 25 yuan per hundred jin, totaling 3,750 yuan. It is exported to Xingning and Meixian via the two routes of Luofu and Cenfeng.

(13) Woodwork

March sixty heads

Leather shoes, slip-on shoes, sports shoes

tooth powder, toothbrush, rubber-soled shoes

(7) The important market of Xunwu

Guo You joined the Tongshan Society in the 27th or 28th year of the Guangxu era, at which time there were about 80 to 90 members. Subsequently, many more joined, and at its peak, the Tongshan Society in this city had approximately 200 members. The origin of the Tongshan Society is in Sichuan, from where official documents were sent to various provinces to establish Tongshan Societies. After receiving approval from the provincial governments, they then established Tongshan Societies in each county. By joining the Tongshan Society, one could gain friends and have opportunities for official positions. The origin of the Tongshan Society is in Sichuan, from where official documents were sent to various provinces to establish Tongshan Societies. After receiving approval from the provincial governments, they then established Tongshan Societies in each county. By joining the Tongshan Society, one could gain friends and have opportunities for official positions

Yánghuǒ cigarettes (including Jīnzì, Zhōngguó, Sānpàotái, Hādémén, Shànměi varieties, with Jīnzì and Zhōngguó being the most popular)

In addition, places such as Cenfeng (rice), Gongping (paper), Huangxiang, and Sanbiao are all classified as ordinary small markets

Fragrant soap flower water essence

Porcelain bowl and porcelain water corner (holding the bowl) hair growth oil

This city has seven pharmacies: Baihetang, Yang Qingren, Xindesheng, Tian Renhe, Wang Putai, Huang Yuxing, and Fuchuntang

Barbers and tailors, whether workers or bosses, rarely save their earnings to become wealthy. The reason is that these two types of people are often clever, fond of gambling, and enjoy indulgence. Why are these two groups like this? Perhaps it is due to their low social status. During the Qing Dynasty, barbers were regarded as belonging to the "lower nine ranks" in society. Similarly, tailors also held a low social status. Although tailors may have wives, they still indulge in extramarital affairs. In contrast, most barbers, eight out of ten, do not have wives. Those without wives do not feel miserable; rather, they often express great joy in their pursuits.

It is also necessary to mention the system of clerks in the grocery store, observing how their class relationships are originally so ambiguous

Oil is the third largest business in this city, with sales coming from both Menling and Anyuan, distributed in the urban area and Huangxiang. There is only one oil shop, Liu Fuxing, which received a "ticket" for 100 dollars, considered as the capital. For consignment sales, a commission of 20 cents is charged for each load of oil sold. November and December are peak business months, with each major market (held on the first day) having 100 loads, totaling 600 loads over two months; minor markets (held on the fourth and seventh days) have around 30 loads, totaling 400 loads over two months. From January to October, business is very slow, with each market having only 30 loads at most, totaling around 300 loads. The annual total is approximately 1,300 loads, with a commission of about 260 yuan. Since he holds the ticket, he sells exclusively, and no one else can buy oil from anywhere but him. The ticket is obtained from the Nanchang provincial government, requiring the county government to use official business to pay the full ticket fee before the ticket is issued. In addition to the 100 yuan ticket fee, there is also a 5 yuan handling fee. A ticket is valid for eight years; after eight years, it becomes waste paper, and a new ticket must be obtained. Not only oil shops need to obtain tickets, but also salt shops, bean shops, and cattle shops.

In Xunwu City, which has a population of fewer than 3,000, there are more than 30 tofu shops. Out of every ten meals eaten in Xunwu City, nine include tofu. The reasons for this preference are twofold: first, it is inexpensive, and second, it is convenient. In the rural areas of Xunwu, tofu is also quite popular; although not as predominant as in Xunwu City, it still accounts for half of the food consumed.

The second company to be considered is Luntai Xing, with three partners contributing a total capital of 2,000 yuan. Aside from expenses, it earns an annual profit of 300 to 400 yuan.

The seven establishments, namely Shunchang Old Shop, Shunchang Xingji, Lu Quanli, Tang Yaojie, Rong Chunxiang, Luo Jieci, and Zhang Junyi, are among the larger players in the water goods trade. Additionally, there are several small stalls selling water goods. Among these, Shunchang Old Shop and Zhang Junyi operate as grocery stores that also deal in water goods

Towel, foreign socks, and foreign porcelain basin

A firecracker shop owned by Mr. Zhong, a native of Huichang, has been in operation for six or seven years with a capital of several dozen yuan. He and a hired master, totaling two people, conduct business that generates an annual revenue of four to five hundred yuan. As is customary, on the first day of the Lunar New Year, they set off firecrackers, and every small shop in Xunwu also spends two yuan on them. This year, however, on the first day of the New Year, the reactionary government declared martial law, prohibiting the setting off of firecrackers, not only on that day but also on regular days, leading to a significant decline in firecracker sales. In the southern half of the county, areas of peasant revolt have completely eradicated superstitions, and firecrackers are no longer desired. Consequently, not only has Mr. Zhong's firecracker business in this city decreased, but the supply of firecrackers from Meixian and Menling to Xunwu has also recently ceased.

Calligraphy, small handkerchief, soap

The couplet features white candles made of paraffin wax

It is also a shop run by Ye Gongchang, a native of Meixian, specializing in watch repair with a capital of ten yuan aside from tools. In the entire county, apart from this city, there is only one other shop, Niudouguang. Both shops were established in the year before last (1928). The total population of Xunwu County is 120,000, with 2% owning watches, amounting to a total of 2,400 clocks or watches, thus necessitating one or two shops for watch repair.

Percentage of the working population

Bone chopsticks, lacquered chopsticks, abacus

Rong Chunxiang, a local resident, has a capital of seven to eight hundred yuan. His family has several tens of dan of rice fields, supporting seven to eight people. He does not hire a teacher. As for expenses, the profits from his business are used for expenditures, while the rice stored at home outside the city is saved, making his store the best among the water goods shops. When the Soviet regime was established, a portion of his land was confiscated, which understandably left him feeling resentful. He was very poor in his childhood, helped a local tyrant with accounting, earned some money, and bought a bit of land to start his business.

Meixian and Menling are not connected by road, and most goods are carried by shoulder. Salt is generally transported by pack horses, and only by boat can goods be delivered to Chengjiang. A portion of the flour is also transported by pack horses.

(20) Open the tin can

(16) Haircut

German safety knife and scissors

Xunwu is a town where both shop business and market business coexist. In the context of Xunwu, market business represents a semi-natural economy, while shop business represents a commodity economy. The ratio of shop business to market business is as follows: shops account for 70 percent, and markets account for 30 percent, indicating that the influence of the commodity economy far exceeds that of the natural economy.

Sugar is also sold in the water goods store, at the third main entrance. It is divided into white sugar, yellow sugar, rock sugar, and various types of orange cake. Among the white sugar, there is snow powder, which looks good but is not sweet, coming from Meixian.

Opening a barbershop requires a capital of around 40 to 50 yuan. Typically, the master hires two workers, with a minimum of one and a maximum of three. The wage is calculated over six months, with a minimum of 30 to 40 yuan, an average of 50 to 60 yuan, and a maximum of 80 yuan. A well-performing barbershop can generate a daily revenue of 1 yuan per person, while an average setup consists of one owner and two workers, who can collectively earn about 3 yuan daily, amounting to approximately 1,000 yuan annually. The labor costs exceed 100 yuan, with the remainder going to the owner. Additional expenses include food (calculated for four people at 75 yuan each), rent (around 30 yuan), and equipment depreciation (under 100 yuan). In a successful barbershop, the daily revenue per person can reach 1 yuan, with an average of 3 yuan daily for one owner and two workers, leading to an annual income of about 1,000 yuan. The labor costs exceed 100 yuan, with the rest going to the owner, along with food expenses (calculated for four people at 75 yuan each), rent (around 30 yuan), and equipment depreciation (under 100 yuan), allowing for a profit of around 400 yuan (including the owner's own wages). What about the expenditure of this sum? It is essentially the owner's indulgence in gambling and other vices.

The seven larger hotels are Chen Guihe, Gao Yuanli, Yuanli Zhan, Zhou Yuchang, Liu Shuangsheng, Ling Wensheng, and Peng Tongfu, while Fan Guangchang, Kuang Hongsheng, and Luo Deli are smaller hotels. Among them, Zhou Yuchang (from Ji'an), Gao Yuanli (from Ji'an), Liu Shuangsheng (a local), and Chen Guihe are the largest, each with a capital of less than 100 yuan. Ling Wensheng (a local), Yuanli Zhan (from Ji'an), and Peng Tongfu each have a capital of only about 40 to 50 yuan. All seven sell sweet wine made from glutinous rice, known as 'Shui Jiu' (water wine), and due to its yellow color, it is also called 'Huang Jiu' (yellow wine). This is a drink generally favored by farmers and urban poor because of its rich flavor, safety for consumption, and relatively low price. It is categorized into 'Shuang Jiu' (double wine) and 'Dan Jiu' (single wine) (the latter term is only used in the city; in the countryside, they refer to it as 'Hao' and 'Dan'). Shuang Jiu has a higher alcohol content. The wine is sold by the pot rather than by weight. A pot of Shuang Jiu costs eighteen copper coins and is the best among yellow wines, typically served at banquets in ordinary households; however, some people consume it with every meal, and those who are habitual drinkers may drink a little at each meal, foregoing solid food.

During the time when the imperial examination had not yet been abolished and both the civil and military examinations were prevalent, there were as many courtesans as there are now. After the abolition of the imperial examination, their numbers gradually decreased, and by around the 30th year of the Guangxu era, there were only a few dozen left. Subsequently, their numbers increased again, and we have now returned to the flourishing state of the imperial examination era. The revolution in the southern half of the county advanced northward, and at the same time, the Red Army arrived in Chengjiang, prompting many courtesans to flee to the countryside. Among them, there was a saying, "The Red Army leaves no grass uncut; even a broom must be executed," which frightened them into running away. The revolution in the southern half of the county advanced northward, and at the same time, the Red Army arrived in Chengjiang, prompting many courtesans to flee to the countryside. Among them, there was a saying, "The Red Army leaves no grass uncut; even a broom must be executed," which frightened them into running away

The religious adherents are weak in number 221

Round wick and flat wick (both types are used for lighting)