The introduction to the political system of this book
However, during the Song Dynasty, there were no disasters caused by external relatives, clans, or eunuchs. In fact, that period, as described in "New Song," was precisely the time when the concept of "constitutional monarchy" was most pronounced. Wang Anshi's reforms strengthened the state's intervention in social and economic matters, which can essentially be viewed as a large-scale expansion of state power over clan authority. Although it can be said that since the Han Dynasty, Wang Anshi was destined to fail, his efforts did create a possibility for a turning point in Chinese society, contrary to the bleak portrayal in "New Song".
Dong Zhongshu stated that "the separation and union of rulers and subjects" involves the ruler taking his principles from "Heaven" and the subjects taking theirs from "Earth". Those who take their principles from Heaven must "elevate their position" and "conceal their form"; those who take their principles from Earth must "reveal their form and express their emotions to the people". When rulers and subjects each adhere to their own paths, it is called "separation"; when they cooperate with each other, it is called "union"
The theory of the divine right of kings renders the ruling authority within this imperial bureaucratic system supreme, with the emperor becoming the sovereign of the Nine-Five, the Son of Heaven, and the High Priest. Henceforth, the monarch is the foundation of the subjects, all of which embody the concept of "subjugating the people to elevate the monarch." However, the second issue, "subjugating the monarch to elevate Heaven," articulates the essence of constitutional monarchy.
During the Eastern Zhou period, spanning several hundred years, the authority of the sovereign diminished, and the rituals and music fell into disarray
The peak of the aristocratic political system coincided with the darkest periods of history during the Two Jin Dynasties and the Southern and Northern Dynasties, which is why there is little fondness for the aristocratic political system. However, I must still say that the aristocracy is an indispensable factor in a constitutional monarchy; it is just necessary to maintain a proper balance, allowing the aristocracy to participate in the bureaucratic system rather than controlling it.
Confucianism provides a mystical interpretation of the "Heaven" in "natural law," which effectively imposes limitations on the authority of the ruler in the following aspects
The encroachment of imperial authority upon the power of the officials is facilitated by three factors: the protection of clan and family, the dominance of eunuchs, and the rampant influence of maternal relatives. With this in mind, you should understand the situation to some extent. The emperor is unable to personally attend to every matter and manage state affairs; without relying on a professional management layer (the bureaucratic system), he is left with no choice but to depend on eunuchs or maternal uncles and cousins to govern the country. This situation has pushed the vast and complex state system to the brink of collapse due to the emperor's inability to personally oversee all affairs and the lack of reliance on a professional bureaucratic structure.
Mentioning this reason inevitably leads to a discussion on how royal authority encroaches upon ministerial power
Although imperial authority possesses supreme power in state affairs, it cannot intrude into the realm of private matters, and thus cannot establish "private law"
Gatekeeping
The abolition of feudalism and the establishment of prefectures marked the beginning of the process in which aristocratic politics and the feudal system started to withdraw from the stage of history
The influence of the clan-based family has not diminished over time
During the feudal period in China, the authority of the monarch was always resplendent, thus the discussion of the "power of the officials" in relation to the monarch's power became inevitable
The ultra-stable structure of feudal society in China began with Dong Zhongshu during the Han Dynasty
"The separation of sovereign and minister" refers to the implementation of the separation of ownership and management, placing the emperor high upon the throne while entrusting the management of state affairs to professionals, with the management layer composed of incompetent Confucian scholars
After the centralization of power during the Qin and Han dynasties, the bureaucratic group lost the economic strength and local autonomy that had existed under the feudal system (this is the current direction of my work "The Heroes of Mountains and Rivers," which has drawn considerable criticism from many readers). However, in civil society, it relied on the strength of clan families to form a counterbalance to the political state.
The general principle of constitutional monarchy: "Subordinate the people to elevate the monarch, subordinate the monarch to elevate heaven; this is the great righteousness of the Spring and Autumn period"
The macro history of feudal China can be described as a struggle between imperial authority and ministerial power. Of course, imperial authority has numerous resources at its disposal, often leading to the ministerial power being severely diminished. Conversely, when ministerial power is extremely weak, it is typically a time of social turmoil.
The "constitutional monarchy" of the Song Dynasty lacked a very important factor, which is likely the reason why "constitutional monarchy" would never succeed.
After the fall of the Qin dynasty, the feudal system was abolished and commanderies and counties were established, marking the beginning of the decline of aristocratic politics and the feudal system in the course of history
Under the fundamental principle of autocratic monarchy, which has remained unchanged for two thousand years, Dong Zhongshu exhausted himself and ultimately perished, accomplishing the Confucian vision of constitutional monarchy within the imperial bureaucratic system.
Fifth, the theory of the separation of powers
It is insufficient to rely solely on despotism combined with governance by virtue
Since the Sui and Tang dynasties, the decline of the aristocratic families has rendered the concept of aristocratic politics a historical term from the late Tang period
Thirdly, the theory of disasters and anomalies
Of course, this is extremely demanding. If I were to marry a wife as beautiful as Fan Bingbing, being required to wake up at 5 AM, not listening to my wife's words, and not taking care of my brother-in-law would be simply impossible
The constitutional monarchy often manifested in the later stages as a "symbolic monarchy with parliamentary system"; however, Dong Zhongshu had already discerned all of this two thousand years ago
If the royal authority cannot be secularized (not allowing the emperor to be the son of God), the structure of ministerial power becomes a significant issue, especially in an era where only a few are educated. The stability of the ministerial power structure signifies the practical implications of "constitutional monarchy," leading to relative social stability. Of course, there are still many issues regarding the structure of ministerial power and the patriarchal system that need to be addressed, so let us discuss them together.
The theory of the divine right of kings establishes the absolute authority of the monarch, while simultaneously suspending an intangible and silent "Heaven" above the monarch's head.
The era in which lineage and political power were unified has come to an end, allowing a commoner to replace the first family of divine origin by seizing the opportunity presented by the times
Dong Zhongshu ultimately became the synthesizer of nearly all the intellectual resources of the Spring and Autumn period, amalgamating the essence of Legalism, Daoism, and Yin-Yang philosophy into a cohesive whole. He then dismissed the hundred schools of thought and gradually instilled the Confucian way into the minds of every Chinese person, including the emperor.
The Confucian way laid the most significant foundation for the "super-stable structure of Chinese feudal society"
Although the Song Dynasty initiated interventions in the judicial authority within families, such as prohibiting blood revenge and ancestral hall trials, the judicial authority within families continued to hold a significant position in judicial practice until the end of the Qing Dynasty
Second and third cycle theory
Reading about Emperor Taizu of Song often evokes deep feelings in me. It is often said that if heaven had granted him an additional ten years of life, the Song Dynasty would not have met such an end. However, upon further reflection, I realize that this is merely a wishful thinking.
In the early stages of constitutional monarchy, the constitution was often used to restrain the monarch, while the feudal constitution of China was rooted in heaven and the Dao
However, why did the Song Dynasty decline to such a painful extent
Beneath the often simplistic label of "despotism," those who observe history should recognize that absolute despotism, much like absolute democracy, has never existed in history
It can be observed that China is not without the so-called "constitutional monarchy"
The political systems envisioned in "New Song" and "Ming" lack a realistic foundation, although I, like many others, enjoy reading these two books. Huang Renyu once stated that China "cannot be managed numerically"
The aristocracy gradually declined from the Sui and Tang dynasties, reaching a perfect balance between imperial authority and ministerial power at the beginning of the Tang dynasty. Alas, all the credit went to Li Shimin alone
The Han Dynasty witnessed the fall of the Qin Dynasty. In order to prevent the imperial bureaucratic system from succumbing to the tragic fate of the Qin, it unexpectedly grew in power, becoming the long-desired "Thousand-Year Kingdom." A series of reforms were implemented to address "autocratic monarchy," during which the essence of "constitutional monarchy" began to emerge. For over two thousand years, Chinese feudal society has not escaped the shadow of "constitutional monarchy."
The Theory of the Four Cardinal Principles and the Five Constant Virtues
The divine right of kings and the authority of ministers granted by the monarch, when constrained by a bureaucratic system composed of incompetent Confucian scholars, inherently possess fundamental flaws. In such circumstances, the strength of China can only rely on the personal qualities of the emperor
Although political power has continuously shifted downwards, it has never reached below the county level. During the times when centralization and monarchical authority prevailed, the actual degree of local autonomy remained quite high
In modern society, a considerable portion of affairs that fall within the realm of public authority remains within the family and has not been ceded to the emperor
A significant number of personal rights and a substantial amount of property are restricted by "family trials," preventing them from being transferred under the jurisdiction of public courts
The likes of Li Shimin are truly anomalies, and one can also observe the shadows of aristocratic politics in the early Tang dynasty
However, during the two thousand years of feudalism, imperial power was unable to achieve limited expansion over the two types of authority. For instance, the judicial power within clans posed a significant obstacle to the nascent capitalism of the Song and Ming dynasties. Due to the existence of "paternal authority," individuals in ancient Chinese society often participated in social activities based on their identity within the family rather than as citizens, and naturally, there was no concept of private ownership of family members' property.
In Chinese feudal society, there have always been three main forms of power structures: political power (imperial power), clan power (local autonomy), and marital power (private legal space), which somewhat resembles the concept of the separation of powers
The significance of "constitutional monarchy" technically depends on the strength of "royal authority" in different periods. It can also be said that the technical and realistic embodiment of "constitutional monarchy" corresponds to the bureaucratic system associated with the emperor
First, the theory of the correspondence between Heaven and humanity
In my youth, I naively believed that the emperor could kill whomever he wished, do whatever he wanted, and marry beautiful women at will (this seems quite achievable and is what I envied the most). However, upon studying history, it became clear that it was far from the case. Otherwise, the Wanli Emperor would not have gone on strike for twenty years in front of his court officials (as noted by Huang Renyu in "The Fifteenth Year of Wanli"). It is said that China's tradition is one of despotism, but this is relative to Europe. Otherwise, the Wanli Emperor would not have gone on strike for twenty years in front of his court officials (as noted by Huang Renyu in "The Fifteenth Year of Wanli"). It is said that China's tradition is one of despotism, but this is relative to Europe.